internal combustion engine

internal combustion engine
Name	Internal combustion engine
Fuel	Petroleum, natural gas, biofuels, hydrogen
Power source	Combustion of fuel inside a chamber
Application	Automobiles, aviation, marine, power generation, machinery

internal combustion engine An internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. It contrasts with external combustion engines such as those used in James Watt's steam engines and in the Rudolf Diesel-inspired designs adopted by Ferdinand Porsche and others. Innovations by inventors including Nikolaus Otto, Étienne Lenoir, Karl Benz, Gottlieb Daimler, Henry Ford, and Rudolf Diesel drove rapid adoption across transportation, industry, and military applications.

History

Early experiments in gaseous and liquid fuel combustion were influenced by pioneers such as Isaac Newton's era technologies and by engineers like Sadi Carnot who formalized thermodynamic cycles. The practical foundation emerged with devices from Étienne Lenoir and later the four-stroke concept attributed to Nikolaus Otto; contemporaries such as Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz adapted engines for road vehicles, while Rudolf Diesel developed high-compression compression-ignition machines. Adoption accelerated through commercialization by firms like Benz & Cie., Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft, Ford Motor Company, and later conglomerates such as General Motors and Toyota Motor Corporation, shaping industrialization, urbanization, and military logistics seen in conflicts including the World War I and World War II. Subsequent decades saw technological advances from research institutions like Massachusetts Institute of Technology and corporations such as Rolls-Royce Holdings and Pratt & Whitney driving evolution in piston, rotary, and turbine-based reciprocating engines.

Principles of operation

Operation rests on thermodynamic cycles such as the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle, with analysis relying on concepts formalized by Sadi Carnot and later extended by Ludwig Boltzmann and Josiah Willard Gibbs. Typical reciprocating engines use pistons moving within cylinders to convert pressure from combustion into mechanical work transmitted to crankshafts and transmissions developed by companies like ZF Friedrichshafen and BorgWarner. Alternative rotary approaches follow paths explored by Felice Rialti and commercialized by corporations like NSU Motorenwerke and Mazda Motor Corporation. Control systems employ sensors and actuators designed by suppliers such as Bosch and Continental AG, while lubrication, cooling, and ignition subsystems reflect standards from organizations like SAE International.

Types and configurations

Engines vary by ignition method—spark-ignition versus compression-ignition—common across manufacturers including Honda Motor Company, Volkswagen Group, and BMW. Cylinder arrangements include inline, V, boxer, and radial layouts used by firms like Rolls-Royce Holdings in aviation and Caterpillar Inc. in heavy equipment. Two-stroke and four-stroke cycles have been exploited by motor companies such as Yamaha Motor Company and Suzuki Motor Corporation for motorcycles and marine engines. Wankel rotary designs were commercialized by NSU Motorenwerke and Mazda Motor Corporation, while gas turbines adapted for combined cycle plants involve engineering from General Electric and Siemens.

Fuels and emissions

Fuels range from liquid hydrocarbons supplied by companies like ExxonMobil, Shell plc, and BP plc to gaseous fuels promoted by utilities such as Gazprom and producers like Cheniere Energy. Biofuels and synthetic fuels involve research institutions like National Renewable Energy Laboratory and corporations including Neste. Combustion produces regulated emissions governed by agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency and European Commission directives, targeting pollutants monitored under protocols like the Kyoto Protocol and frameworks influenced by reports from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Aftertreatment technologies—catalytic converters from Johnson Matthey, selective catalytic reduction systems by Denso Corporation—and particulate filters reduce NOx, CO, HC, and particulate matter to meet standards in regions overseen by bodies including California Air Resources Board.

Components and systems

Major components include cylinder blocks and heads machined by firms like GKN plc; pistons and connecting rods produced by companies such as Mahle GmbH; crankshafts forged by industrial manufacturers including KraussMaffei; and valvetrains developed with input from Schaeffler Group. Fuel delivery systems evolved from carburetors used by older models from Carburetor Corporation to electronic fuel injection pioneered by Bosch and implemented across marques like Mercedes-Benz and Ford Motor Company. Ignition systems advanced from magnetos to coil-on-plug designs employed by Toyota Motor Corporation and Nissan Motor Co., Ltd.. Cooling and lubrication subsystems reference component suppliers such as Valeo SA and SKF.

Performance and efficiency

Engine performance metrics—power, torque, brake mean effective pressure—are standardized in measurements used by organizations like SAE International and tested on dynamometers from manufacturers such as DynoTech. Thermal efficiency follows limits described by the Carnot cycle with practical improvements via turbocharging and supercharging from companies such as Garrett Motion and BorgWarner, variable valve timing systems developed by BMW and Honda Motor Company, and direct injection systems marketed by Bosch and Delphi Technologies. Material science contributions from Corning Incorporated and ARMCO enable higher temperatures and pressures, while computational models derived from work at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories improve combustion chamber design.

Applications and future developments

IC engines power light-duty vehicles from Toyota Motor Corporation, Volkswagen Group, and Hyundai Motor Company; heavy trucks from Daimler Truck AG and Volvo Group; aircraft engines from Pratt & Whitney and Rolls-Royce Holdings; marine propulsion by MAN Energy Solutions and Wärtsilä; and off-road machinery by Caterpillar Inc. and Deere & Company. Ongoing research at institutions like Stanford University and Imperial College London and initiatives by corporations such as Tesla, Inc. and Shell plc address electrification, hydrogen combustion, carbon capture, and synthetic fuels as pathways for decarbonization aligned with policies from the European Commission and international agreements like the Paris Agreement. Hybridization strategies combining engines with battery systems from suppliers like LG Chem and Panasonic Corporation aim to extend relevance while regulatory pressure from agencies including the Environmental Protection Agency accelerates transitions to low- and zero-emission drivetrains.

Category:Engines