elevators

elevators
Another Believer · CC BY-SA 3.0 · source
Name	Elevators
Invented	Ancient times; modern safety elevator 1852
Inventor	Archimedes; Elisha Otis (safety elevator)
Type	Vertical transport device
Usage	Building transportation, industrial lifting

elevators

Elevators are vertical transport devices that move people and goods between levels in buildings, ships, mines, and industrial facilities. They evolved from ancient hoists and pulleys to complex electromechanical and electronic systems, integrating standards from American Society of Mechanical Engineers, International Organization for Standardization, and national authorities like Occupational Safety and Health Administration and European Committee for Standardization. Major manufacturers and stakeholders include Otis Elevator Company, Schindler Group, KONE, ThyssenKrupp, and Mitsubishi Electric.

History

Early vertical-lift mechanisms trace to ancient civilizations using ropes, pulleys, and humans or animals, with references in works of Archimedes and construction projects like the Great Pyramid of Giza. Medieval and Renaissance innovations employed treadwheels and capstans for castles and cathedrals; notable patrons included Filippo Brunelleschi and projects such as the Florence Cathedral. The Industrial Revolution introduced steam and hydraulic power in factories and mines, with industrialists and inventors like Isambard Kingdom Brunel and companies such as Boulton and Watt developing hoisting machinery. The modern passenger elevator emerged after Elisha Otis demonstrated a safety brake in 1853 in New York City, catalyzing skyscraper construction exemplified by buildings like the Home Insurance Building and later landmarks including the Empire State Building and Burj Khalifa.

Design and Components

Core components include the car (cab), counterweight, guide rails, hoistway (shaft), traction machine or hydraulic actuator, ropes or belts, and safety gear. Mechanical design draws on principles formalized by engineers at institutions such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology and companies including Siemens AG. Electrical control systems rely on power electronics from firms like ABB and semiconductor developments traced to work at Bell Labs. Materials science advances from Alcoa and research at Imperial College London influence cabin materials, while standards bodies such as Underwriters Laboratories and British Standards Institution codify component testing. Energy recovery and regenerative drives reference technologies used by General Electric and innovations in battery systems by Tesla, Inc..

Types and Configurations

Common configurations include traction elevators (geared and gearless), hydraulic elevators, machine-room-less (MRL) designs, and pneumatic vacuum lifts. Specialized types serve freight, service, panoramic (glass) cabins in landmarks like Eiffel Tower and cruise ships such as those operated by Royal Caribbean International. Industrial variants appear in mines and referenced in operations by companies like Rio Tinto and BHP. High-speed systems in skyscrapers, exemplified by installations in Taipei 101 and Shanghai Tower, use double-deck cars and sky lobbies; express installations trace to work by firms including Hitachi. Vertical and inclined lift concepts relate to projects like the Wuppertal Suspension Railway and funiculars such as the Duquesne Incline.

Safety and Regulations

Safety evolved via accidents that prompted regulation from bodies like U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics-documented inquiries, legislative responses in parliaments such as the UK Parliament, and municipal codes in cities like London and New York City. Key safety devices include the governor, safety brake, door interlocks, buffers, and emergency communication systems complying with standards from European Commission directives and national agencies like Transport Canada. Certification and inspection regimes involve agencies such as American National Standards Institute and enforcement by municipal departments (e.g., New York City Department of Buildings). Liability and litigation have shaped best practices through cases adjudicated in courts including the Supreme Court of the United States and arbitration bodies like the International Chamber of Commerce.

Operation and Control Systems

Elevator control evolved from relay-based controllers to computerized group-dispatch algorithms using real-time optimization and destination control systems influenced by research at Stanford University and Delft University of Technology. Networked building management systems integrate elevators with HVAC and security platforms from companies such as Honeywell International and Johnson Controls. Safety-critical software development follows standards like those from IEEE and certification practices influenced by Federal Communications Commission-governed communications. Maintenance strategies include predictive maintenance employing sensors and IoT platforms developed by firms like Siemens AG and IBM.

Accessibility and Human Factors

Design for usability and accessibility adheres to laws and guidelines such as the Americans with Disabilities Act and accessibility standards adopted by the European Accessibility Act. Human factors research from institutions like University College London and Georgia Institute of Technology informs cabin ergonomics, control placement, audible and visual indicators, and evacuation procedures coordinated with emergency services such as London Fire Brigade and New York City Fire Department. Wayfinding and signage practices reference standards from organizations like ISO and advocacy groups including American Council of the Blind.

Modern Trends and Future Developments

Recent trends include machine-room-less designs popularized by KONE, destination dispatch systems by Schindler Group and Otis Elevator Company, and maglev or linear motor concepts explored by ThyssenKrupp for multi-directional movement. Smart-building integration uses IoT, cloud platforms from Microsoft Azure and Amazon Web Services, and predictive analytics by companies such as SAP. Research into ultra-high-rise vertical transit links to projects like The Line (Saudi Arabia) and innovative proposals by academic groups at ETH Zurich and Tsinghua University. Sustainability initiatives involve regenerative drives, lifecycle assessment frameworks from World Green Building Council, and circular economy practices promoted by entities like Ellen MacArthur Foundation.

Category:Vertical transport systems