electric vehicles

electric vehicles
Mariordo (Mario Roberto Durán Ortiz) · CC BY-SA 4.0 · source
Name	Electric vehicles
Manufacturer	Various
Production	19th century–present
Class	Automotive, transportation
Power	Electric motors, batteries

electric vehicles are road vehicles powered wholly or partly by electrical energy stored in on-board batteries or supplied from an external source. They encompass a range of propulsion architectures developed and commercialized by companies such as Tesla, Inc., Nissan Motor Company, General Motors, Toyota Motor Corporation and Volkswagen AG and adopted in markets including United States, China, European Union, Japan and India. Early developments involved inventors and firms like Thomas Edison, Nikola Tesla, Birmingham Small Arms Company and Henney Motor Company, while modern progress relies on suppliers such as Panasonic Corporation, LG Chem and CATL.

History

The emergence of electric-powered conveyances traces to 19th-century innovators including Gustave Trouvé, William Morrison and firms such as Baker Motor Vehicle Company and Riker Electric Vehicle Company, competing with internal combustion firms like Ford Motor Company and Karl Benz's enterprises. The early 20th century saw adoption by urban services and celebrities, with technologies advanced by companies such as General Electric and advocates like Thomas Edison before being eclipsed by mass-produced vehicles like the Ford Model T. Renewed interest in the late 20th and early 21st centuries followed milestones from organizations such as California Air Resources Board and events including the 1973 oil crisis and the 2008 global financial crisis, spurring projects by Hybrid Electric Vehicle Research Center participants and trials led by California Energy Commission and automakers including Renault and BMW AG.

Technology and components

Key elements include energy storage, electric traction, power electronics and controls developed by firms such as Bosch (company), Siemens AG and Infineon Technologies. Battery systems rely on chemistries commercialized by Panasonic Corporation, Samsung SDI, LG Chem and Contemporary Amperex Technology Co. Limited (CATL) including variants of lithium-ion pioneered in part by researchers like John Goodenough, Stanley Whittingham and Akira Yoshino. Motors employ permanent magnet or induction designs influenced by work from Nikola Tesla and modern implementations by Siemens AG and BorgWarner. Power electronics use inverters and converters developed by companies such as On Semiconductor and Texas Instruments, while thermal management and software stacks trace to platforms from NVIDIA Corporation and Bosch (company). Safety systems integrate standards and testing regimes from organizations such as Society of Automotive Engineers and International Electrotechnical Commission.

Types and classifications

Vehicles span battery-electric, plug-in hybrid, range-extended and hybrid architectures marketed by manufacturers such as Tesla, Inc., Toyota Motor Corporation, General Motors, BMW AG and Hyundai Motor Company. Classification schemes from agencies like Environmental Protection Agency and European Commission distinguish light-duty, heavy-duty and two-wheeler segments serviced by firms including Daimler AG, Volvo Group and Yamaha Motor Company. Niche categories include electric buses by companies such as BYD Company, electric trucks from Rivian Automotive and Nikola Corporation, and micro-mobility devices from Segway and Xiaomi Corporation. Vehicle certification and homologation involve authorities like United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and Ministry of Transport (China).

Infrastructure and charging

Charging ecosystems combine public, workplace and home solutions provided by networks such as ChargePoint, Electrify America, Ionity and BP Chargemaster using standards like CHAdeMO, Combined Charging System, GB/T (China), and protocols overseen by Society of Automotive Engineers and International Electrotechnical Commission. Grid integration and smart charging research engages utilities such as Pacific Gas and Electric Company, State Grid Corporation of China and transmission operators like National Grid (Great Britain) along with technology from Siemens AG and Schneider Electric. Fast charging hubs and battery swapping pilot programs have been trialed by firms including NIO and Tesla, Inc., while urban deployments intersect with infrastructure projects led by European Investment Bank and municipal programs in cities like Oslo, Shenzhen and Los Angeles.

Environmental and economic impacts

Lifecycle assessments by institutions such as Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, International Energy Agency and United Nations Environment Programme examine greenhouse gas emissions, raw material extraction impacts involving suppliers like Vale (mining company), Glencore and recycling initiatives by Umicore and Li-Cycle. Economic effects involve supply chains with major actors Foxconn, Magna International and Aptiv plc and labor implications in regions including Southeast Asia, Midwest (United States) and Saxony (Germany). Externalities addressed by studies from National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Massachusetts Institute of Technology include grid impacts, rare earth processing linked to firms such as MP Materials and circular-economy strategies promoted by European Commission directives.

Market and adoption trends

Sales growth driven by manufacturers such as Tesla, Inc., BYD Company, Volkswagen AG, Renault and Nissan Motor Company accelerated in markets led by China, Norway, Netherlands and California. Investment flows involve venture and institutional backers including SoftBank, Sequoia Capital, BlackRock and corporate R&D from Toyota Motor Corporation and GM Ventures. Secondary markets, fleet electrification by companies like Amazon (company), DHL and Uber Technologies and second-life battery programs with partners such as EDF (Électricité de France) influence resale values and total cost of ownership analyzed by consultancies like BloombergNEF and McKinsey & Company.

Policy and regulation

Regulatory drivers include emissions standards and incentive programs enacted by authorities such as European Commission, California Air Resources Board, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (China) and national legislatures like the United States Congress. Policies range from purchase subsidies, tax credits and zero-emission vehicle mandates associated with instruments from Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 proponents to infrastructure funding from bodies such as European Investment Bank and National Development and Reform Commission (China). Trade measures, safety rules and standardization efforts involve organizations such as World Trade Organization, International Organization for Standardization and UNECE.

Category:Transport technology