cryogenics
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| cryogenics | |
|---|---|
| Name | Cryogenics |
| Field | Low-temperature physics |
| Invented | 19th century |
| Inventors | James Dewar, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes |
cryogenics Cryogenics studies the production and behavior of materials at very low temperatures. It encompasses techniques for refrigeration, storage, and manipulation of substances near absolute zero and supports research in Albert Einstein-related quantum phenomena, Niels Bohr-era atomic models, and technologies used by National Aeronautics and Space Administration, European Space Agency, and CERN.
Definition and Scope
Cryogenics defines a regime of temperature and associated practices distinct from ordinary refrigeration. It intersects with achievements by Lord Kelvin, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, and work at institutions such as Bell Labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Stanford University. The field informs developments pursued by General Electric, Siemens, Hitachi, and research in facilities like Brookhaven National Laboratory, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, and Max Planck Society institutes.
History and Development
Early milestones include liquefaction of gases by Michael Faraday, advances by James Dewar and the isolation of superconductivity by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes at Leiden University. Later expansions came from work at Oxford University, Cambridge University, Imperial College London, and military-linked programs at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base and Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Cold-chain technologies evolved through commercial adoption by Air Products and Chemicals, Praxair, and industrial research by DuPont and 3M.
Principles and Techniques
Techniques rely on thermodynamic cycles established by Sadi Carnot and expanded through refrigeration methods used in Claude refrigeration and the Gifford–McMahon and Joule–Thomson effect devices. Liquefaction of gases follows methods developed by Carl von Linde and implemented in plants by Linde plc and Air Liquide. Cryogenic practice requires precise metrology linked to standards from International Bureau of Weights and Measures and instrumentation used by National Institute of Standards and Technology and Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt.
Applications
Cryogenic temperatures enable superconducting magnets used in Magnetically confined fusion experiments at ITER, medical devices like Magnetic Resonance Imaging scanners produced by Siemens Healthineers and GE Healthcare, and quantum computing platforms developed by IBM, Google, Rigetti Computing, and D-Wave Systems. Space science missions by Jet Propulsion Laboratory and European Space Agency use cryogenic cooling for infrared detectors on telescopes such as James Webb Space Telescope and instruments on Hubble Space Telescope-era projects. Other domains include particle accelerators at CERN, cryopreservation research pursued at Mayo Clinic, and materials science investigations at Argonne National Laboratory.
Materials and Equipment
Common cryogens include oxygen and nitrogen liquefied via processes patented by Carl von Linde and distributed by firms like Air Products and Chemicals and Praxair. Equipment ranges from storage dewars designed following standards from American Society of Mechanical Engineers to cryostats used in labs at MIT, Caltech, University of California, Berkeley, and ETH Zurich. Superconducting wire suppliers such as American Superconductor and Bruker provide materials for magnets, while instrumentation for low-temperature physics is developed by companies like Oxford Instruments and Cryomech.
Safety and Hazards
Handling cryogenic fluids is regulated by standards promulgated by Occupational Safety and Health Administration and European Union directives; accidents investigated by agencies including National Transportation Safety Board and Health and Safety Executive (United Kingdom). Hazards include asphyxiation, cold burns, and pressure-related explosions, requiring training common at research centers such as Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and industrial facilities run by BASF and ExxonMobil. Emergency response protocols often reference guidance used by Federal Emergency Management Agency and international organizations like World Health Organization.