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| conjugated polymers | |
|---|---|
| Name | Conjugated polymers |
| Type | Organic semiconductor |
| Discovered | 1970s |
| Notable | Polyacetylene, polythiophene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene) |
conjugated polymers are organic macromolecules featuring alternating single and double bonds along a polymer backbone that permit delocalization of π-electrons, producing semiconductor-like electrical and optical behavior. They bridge chemistry and materials science by combining synthetic organic routes used by Alan Heeger, Alan J. Heeger, Hideki Shirakawa, Alan G. MacDiarmid, and industrial partners such as DuPont with device-oriented communities centered on institutions like Bell Laboratories, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and IBM Research. Research into these materials intersects with technologies developed at Nokia, Sony, Samsung Electronics, and academic centers including Harvard University, Stanford University, and University of Cambridge.
Conjugated polymers include canonical examples such as polyacetylene, polythiophene, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), polyaniline, and poly(3-hexylthiophene), and have been the focus of Nobel recognition, notably the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2000 awarded to Alan Heeger, Alan MacDiarmid, and Hideki Shirakawa. Their discovery and commercialization involve collaborations among firms like Eastman Chemical Company, BASF, and 3M as well as national laboratories including Argonne National Laboratory and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Conjugated polymers underpin advances in devices demonstrated at venues such as the International Electron Devices Meeting and MRS Fall Meeting.
The backbone of these materials often derives from monomers used in classic organic syntheses developed in laboratories such as University of Tokyo and University of Pennsylvania. Polymerization strategies include oxidative polymerization popularized in work by Hideki Shirakawa, transition-metal-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions exemplified by Suzuki coupling and Stille coupling, and ring-opening metathesis mediated by catalysts from groups like Grubbs (linked to California Institute of Technology). Controlled polymerizations employ methodologies refined at institutions such as ETH Zurich and Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research and rely on reagents commercialized by companies like Sigma-Aldrich.
Delocalized π-conjugation gives rise to band-like electronic structures studied in analogy to models used at Bell Labs and treated in theoretical frameworks originating from work at Princeton University and University of Chicago. Charge carriers (polarons, bipolarons) were characterized in pioneering experiments by researchers affiliated with University of Pennsylvania and University of California, Santa Barbara. Optical absorption, photoluminescence, and exciton behavior have been central to developments reported at conferences such as the Optical Fiber Communication Conference and investigated by groups at MIT and University of Cambridge using concepts from Marcus theory and theories developed at California Institute of Technology.
Spectroscopic and microscopic tools from institutions like Brookhaven National Laboratory and National Institute of Standards and Technology are commonly applied. Techniques include ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy practiced in laboratories at Columbia University, Raman spectroscopy used in studies at University of Manchester, nuclear magnetic resonance methods refined at ETH Zurich, X-ray diffraction performed at facilities such as European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, and scanning probe methods (AFM, STM) developed in research groups at IBM Research and University of Basel.
Conjugated polymers are integral to organic electronic devices commercialized by companies like Sony, E Ink Corporation, and Konica Minolta. Key applications include organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) advanced at Eastman Kodak and Universal Display Corporation, organic photovoltaics pursued at Heliatek and Oxford Photovoltaics, organic field-effect transistors developed by teams at Intel and TSMC, and sensors integrated in products by Siemens and Philips. Biomedical and wearable applications have been explored in collaborations involving Johns Hopkins University and Karolinska Institutet.
Processing strategies draw on techniques used in microelectronics at Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company and roll-to-roll methods championed by firms such as Mitsubishi Chemical and 3M. Solution processing, spin coating, inkjet printing, and vapor deposition have been optimized in cleanroom facilities at IMEC, Fraunhofer Society, and university fabrication centers like Cornell NanoScale Facility. Interfaces and multilayer structures reference interfacial engineering studied at University of California, Berkeley and University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign.
Stability issues have driven work at national research centers including National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories on photooxidation, moisture ingress, and thermal degradation mechanisms. Strategies such as encapsulation developed by companies like Apple and Google and chemical stabilization approaches from academic groups at University of Cambridge and ETH Zurich aim to mitigate device lifetime limits observed in field trials conducted by telecommunications firms like Ericsson and Nokia.
Future work is being charted by consortia at institutions such as European Commission-funded projects, US initiatives at National Science Foundation, and collaborative programs involving Toyota Research Institute and BASF. Challenges include improving charge mobility targeted by researchers at IMEC and Oak Ridge National Laboratory, achieving reproducible large-area manufacturing scaled by Foxconn, and integrating conjugated polymers into hybrid systems alongside inorganic semiconductors studied at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Cross-disciplinary efforts linking groups at Caltech, University of Oxford, and Peking University aim to translate molecular design into robust technologies for energy, displays, and bioelectronics.
Category:Polymers Category:Organic semiconductors