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| cannabis (drug) | |
|---|---|
| Name | Cannabis |
| Caption | Flowering Cannabis sativa |
| Tradenames | Marijuana, Hashish, Hemp (industrial) |
| Routes of administration | Inhalation, Oral, Sublingual, Topical |
| Legal status | Varies by country and subnational jurisdiction |
cannabis (drug) is a psychoactive plant product derived primarily from Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and hybrid cultivars cultivated for recreational, medicinal, and industrial purposes. The plant contains a complex mixture of cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids that interact with mammalian physiology, producing effects ranging from euphoria and analgesia to cognitive impairment and psychosis. Use, regulation, and commercial markets have evolved rapidly in the 21st century across jurisdictions such as Canada, Uruguay, and multiple states within the United States.
Cultivation and utilization of Cannabis sativa span millennia, with archaeological evidence from sites in China and Central Asia indicating fiber and seed use during the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods. Texts such as the Pen-ts'ao and records from the Tang dynasty reference medicinal and ritual applications, while trade routes like the Silk Road facilitated diffusion to Europe and North Africa. In the 19th century figures including William O'Shaughnessy introduced cannabis into Western medicine, and later policy shifts—exemplified by the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 in the United States and the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs—criminalized or tightly regulated production and consumption. Contemporary movements for reform drew on advocacy by organizations such as the Drug Policy Alliance and political decisions in Portugal and Netherlands that influenced decriminalization and harm-reduction policies.
Cannabis contains over a hundred cannabinoids; the most researched are delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). Biosynthetic pathways in glandular trichomes convert precursors via enzymes such as THCA synthase and CBDA synthase; decarboxylation by heat yields active forms. Cannabinoids exert effects primarily through the endocannabinoid system, binding to CB1 receptor and CB2 receptor in neural and immune tissues, modulating neurotransmission and inflammatory signaling. Pharmacodynamic interactions include modulation of dopamine release in mesolimbic circuitry and effects on GABAergic and glutamatergic synapses, while pharmacokinetics depend on route of administration, lipophilicity, and metabolism by hepatic cytochromes such as CYP2C9 and CYP3A4.
Methods include inhalation (smoking in joints, pipes, or bongs), vaporization, oral ingestion (edibles, tinctures), sublingual oils, and topical preparations. Each method alters onset and duration: inhalation delivers rapid THC absorption via pulmonary alveoli with peak plasma concentrations within minutes, whereas oral ingestion produces delayed but prolonged effects due to first-pass hepatic metabolism and production of 11-hydroxy-THC. Industrial hemp from Hemp (industrial) cultivars is processed for fiber and seed oil rather than psychoactive consumption. Novel delivery systems include transdermal patches and aerosolized formulations investigated by pharmaceutical companies and academic institutions such as University of California and Johns Hopkins University.
Medicinal applications have been explored for chronic pain, chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, spasticity in multiple sclerosis, and certain pediatric epilepsies such as Dravet syndrome and Lennox–Gastaut syndrome. Regulatory approvals include pharmaceuticals like dronabinol and nabiximols in some jurisdictions. Clinical research spans randomized controlled trials, observational cohorts, and translational studies at centers including Mayo Clinic and Massachusetts General Hospital. Challenges in research arise from scheduling restrictions, standardization of botanical products, and heterogeneity in trial design; nevertheless, agencies such as the World Health Organization and national drug regulatory authorities have reviewed evidence to inform policy.
Acute effects include euphoria, anxiolysis, altered sensory perception, and impairment of short-term memory and psychomotor coordination—relevant to activities such as driving. Adverse outcomes can include acute psychotic episodes, particularly in individuals with a predisposition linked to family history and genetic variants studied in cohorts like those at Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience. Chronic heavy use has been associated with cannabis use disorder, cognitive impacts in adolescent-onset users, and potential respiratory harms from combustion products similar to those investigated for tobacco smoking. Pregnant-person exposure has been linked to adverse neonatal outcomes in epidemiological studies conducted by institutions such as Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Legal frameworks vary widely: countries such as Canada and Uruguay have national legalization regimes, while some U.S. states have legalized adult-use cannabis despite federal prohibition under statutes like the Controlled Substances Act. Regulatory approaches encompass criminalization, decriminalization, medical-only access, and commercialized retail markets regulated by bodies akin to provincial liquor authorities and agencies in Colorado and California. International treaties including the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and international bodies such as the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime influence treaty compliance and reform debates.
Production ranges from small-scale cultivation to large commercial operations with licensed producers and vertically integrated firms in markets like Canada and Washington (state). Supply chains include cultivation, processing into concentrates and edibles, distribution through licensed dispensaries, and illicit markets that persist due to taxation and regulatory barriers. Economic analyses examine tax revenue, criminal-justice cost savings, and impacts on employment and agriculture; municipalities and national treasuries in jurisdictions including Colorado and Uruguay publish fiscal reports. Illicit trafficking across borders involves law enforcement agencies such as INTERPOL and customs authorities, while industry groups and trade associations lobby on issues of standards, advertising, and banking access.
Category:Psychoactive plants