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| burqa | |
|---|---|
| Name | Burqa |
| Type | Full-body veil |
burqa The burqa is a full-body outer garment traditionally worn by some women in parts of South Asia and Central Asia, covering the entire body including the face with a mesh screen for the eyes. It is associated with particular social, religious, and political practices across regions such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of India, and features prominently in debates involving states like Afghanistan, Pakistan, and France. The garment has been addressed in literature, film, law, and international relations involving actors such as United Nations bodies, Amnesty International, and national courts like the European Court of Human Rights.
The term derives from languages of South Asia and the Middle East; modern scholarly treatments reference lexical comparisons involving Persian language, Arabic language, and Urdu language. Historical lexicographers and orientalists such as Edward Said and philologists working on Sanskrit-era texts have traced cognates and semantic shifts. Colonial-era records from administrations like the British Raj and institutions such as the India Office documented regional terms and usage patterns that influenced the English lexical entry.
The burqa is characterized by full-body coverage and a rigid or sewn-in face veil with an eye screen. Variants include styles influenced by regional dress traditions such as the chadari-type coverings recorded in Afghanistan and local adaptations comparable to the niqab and the abaya in visual appearance, though those garments differ in construction and social meaning. Other related garments appear in descriptions of dress from the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid dynasty, and South Asian courts like the Mughal Empire, producing cloth traditions and tailoring practices associated with garments such as the purdah system and regional textiles like bengal muslin.
Full-face and full-body coverings have antecedents traceable through sources on courtly and devotional dress from the medieval period, including Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal archival images and travelers’ accounts such as those by Ibn Battuta and colonial observers like William Moorcroft. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century shifts occurred amid encounters with imperial modernity under entities such as the British Empire and reform movements in societies influenced by figures like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Jamā'at-e-Islami. Twentieth-century transformations accelerated during state projects and conflicts involving Soviet Union interventions in Central Asia and the rise of movements and regimes, including the Taliban in Afghanistan and political parties in Pakistan.
Religious interpretations involving jurists from traditions linked to schools such as the Hanafi madhhab and debates among scholars in institutions like Al-Azhar University and seminaries in Qom, Iran produce divergent views on modest dress and face coverings. Cultural practices intersect with rituals and social norms observed in cities like Kabul, Peshawar, and Lahore and in diasporic communities in metropolises such as London, Paris, and New York City. Intellectuals and authors like Fatema Mernissi, Ayaan Hirsi Ali, and Saba Mahmood have written on veiling practices, while filmmakers and artists—e.g., those associated with festivals like the Venice Film Festival—have depicted coverings in works that engage with identity, gender, and modernity.
Usage is concentrated in parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and rural districts in India, with historical presence in regions of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and provincial areas formerly under the Mughal Empire. Diaspora populations in Western Europe and North America—cities such as Brussels, Berlin, and Toronto—exhibit diverse practices influenced by migration, local law, and community organizations including chapters of Muslim Council of Britain and activist groups like Women Living Under Muslim Laws. National censuses, ethnographies, and NGO reports by entities such as Human Rights Watch document regional variation in prevalence, material, and social contexts of wear.
Legal debates have involved constitutional courts and legislative bodies in states including France, Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, and Canada as well as rulings by the European Court of Human Rights. National laws and municipal ordinances have addressed public space regulations, education policy, and security measures, engaging political parties and civil society organizations such as Rassemblement National and trade unions in Europe, or political movements in Pakistan and Afghanistan. International organizations including the United Nations Human Rights Council and advocacy NGOs like Amnesty International have issued statements and guidance shaping diplomatic and policy responses.
Critiques arise from feminist scholars, human rights advocates, and legal practitioners citing concerns about individual autonomy, gender equality, and coercion; commentators include activists linked with Equality Now and scholars such as Simone de Beauvoir in broader discussions of women's rights. Human rights reports by institutions like Human Rights Watch and resolutions in bodies such as the United Nations General Assembly examine allegations of enforced dress codes, access to education, and restrictions on movement in contexts where state or non-state actors enforce covering. Debates also consider freedom of religion and expression claims advanced in litigation before tribunals including the European Court of Human Rights.
Category:Religious clothing