boron
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| boron | |
|---|---|
| Name | Boron |
| Category | Metalloid |
| Appearance | Black-brown |
| Atomic weight | 10.81 |
| Phase | Solid |
| Density | 2.34 g/cm³ |
| Melting point | 2349 K |
| Boiling point | 4200 K |
| Discoverer | Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac; Louis-Jacques Thénard; Humphry Davy |
| Year discovered | 1808 |
boron Boron is a chemical element with atomic number 5 that occupies a key position among the metalloids in the periodic layout. It displays unique bonding and structural motifs that bridge properties associated with carbon-group and silicon-group elements, and it is central to materials explored by researchers at institutions such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Max Planck Society, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Industrial and academic interest spans mining operations in Turkey and United States sites, manufacturing by firms like 3M and Saint-Gobain, and application-driven research funded by agencies including the National Science Foundation and European Research Council.
Introduction
Boron manifests as a brittle, refractory metalloid used in alloys, ceramics, and high-performance composites. Its electronic configuration and small atomic radius produce electron-deficient compounds studied at universities such as Harvard University, Stanford University, and University of Cambridge, and characterized using facilities at CERN, Argonne National Laboratory, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Historically tied to chemists and naturalists like Antoine Lavoisier-era contemporaries and later investigators such as Humphry Davy and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, boron remains a focus of modern chemistry, materials science, and energy research pursued by consortia including European Organization for Nuclear Research collaborators and industrial partners such as BASF.
Properties
Solid boron exhibits polymorphism with crystalline forms (α-rhombohedral, β-rhombohedral, and γ-orthorhombic) characterized by icosahedral B12 units analyzed in papers from Royal Society journals and studied by groups at ETH Zurich and University of Tokyo. Its electron-deficient bonding leads to high hardness comparable to materials investigated by De Beers and Carnegie Institution for Science geophysicists, while its low density and high melting point recommend it for designs by Boeing and Airbus engineers. Boron compounds show varied electrical behavior exploited in devices developed at Bell Labs and IBM Research, and their thermal stability is critical to projects at NASA centers like Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Marshall Space Flight Center.
Occurrence and Production
Natural boron concentrates in minerals such as , , and mined in regions including California, Nevada, Tuscany, Chile, and Kyrgyzstan. Major producers include corporations operating alongside state agencies in Turkey and United States Department of the Interior-regulated lands. Extraction and processing use technologies refined through collaborations among Rio Tinto, Rio Tinto Group research divisions, and university programs at University of Nevada, Reno. Refined boron chemicals are manufactured by companies like Rio Tinto Borates and Eti Maden, with trade influenced by commodity analyses from organizations such as World Bank and International Energy Agency.
Compounds and Chemistry
Boron forms a wide range of compounds: hydrides (boranes) studied in classic work by H.C. Brown and later by research groups at California Institute of Technology, halides (boron trifluoride) used in organic synthesis protocols developed at University of Oxford and Massachusetts General Hospital chemistry labs, and boron nitride polymorphs (hexagonal and cubic) with properties analogous to graphite and diamond explored by General Electric and Sumitomo Electric Industries. Boron carbide and boron nitride ceramics are central to programs at Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and US Army Research Laboratory for armor and abrasives. Organoboron reagents underpin cross-coupling methodologies (e.g., Suzuki reactions) attributed to Akira Suzuki and implemented broadly in pharmaceutical chemistry at firms such as Pfizer, AstraZeneca, and Roche.
Applications
Boron and its derivatives are used in borosilicate glass manufacturing pioneered by Corning Incorporated, in detergents and flame retardants commercialized by Procter & Gamble, and in neutron-absorbing control rods for nuclear reactors at facilities managed by entities like Electricité de France and Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power. High-strength fibers and boron-doped semiconductors find uses in aerospace systems from Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman and in electronics by Intel and Samsung Electronics. Energy-related applications include borohydride fuels investigated by teams at Toyota and Toyota Research Institute and hydrogen storage projects supported by the Department of Energy and International Renewable Energy Agency collaborations.
Biological Role and Toxicity
Boron is an essential micronutrient for plants; agronomy research at United States Department of Agriculture stations and universities such as University of California, Davis demonstrates roles in cell wall structure affecting crop yields studied in trials in Iowa and Punjab. In humans and animals, clinical and toxicology studies at World Health Organization and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention assess dietary requirements and exposure risks, with occupational health guidelines from agencies including Occupational Safety and Health Administration and European Chemicals Agency. Excessive exposure has produced cases reviewed by panels convened at National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and in toxicology reports published by Food and Agriculture Organization committees.
History and Discovery
Elemental boron was isolated in the early 19th century following work by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, Louis-Jacques Thénard, and Humphry Davy amid developments in electrochemistry at institutes like Académie des Sciences and universities such as University College London. Subsequent structural elucidation and the definition of allotropes were advanced by crystallographers at University of Göttingen and Royal Institution researchers, while 20th-century industrialization involved chemical firms such as Imperial Chemical Industries and mining enterprises that expanded deposits in California and Turkey. Modern computational and spectroscopic studies by consortia including Forschungszentrum Jülich and Oak Ridge National Laboratory continue to refine understanding of boron's bonding and materials potential.