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| alkaline battery | |
|---|---|
| Name | Alkaline battery |
| Type | Primary cell |
| Invented | 1950s |
| Inventor | Lewis Urry |
| Country | United States |
alkaline battery
Alkaline batteries are a class of primary electrochemical cells that deliver electrical energy from redox reactions. They became a dominant portable power source after mid-20th century commercialization and are widely used in consumer Duracell Corporation and Energizer devices, as well as industrial and military applications. The technology influenced the development of portable electronics attributed in part to innovations by Eveready Battery Company and researchers linked to Union Carbide and Gulton Industries.
Alkaline cells are primary batteries typically in standard sizes such as AA, AAA, C, and D. They replaced many uses of the earlier Leclanché cell and zinc–carbon battery designs due to higher energy density and longer shelf life. Commercialization involved Union Carbide, Energizer Holdings, and innovators such as Lewis Urry, who worked at Eveready. Over decades the alkaline format has been standardized by organizations like International Electrotechnical Commission and American National Standards Institute.
The electrochemistry centers on a zinc anode oxidizing and a manganese dioxide cathode reducing in an alkaline electrolyte such as potassium hydroxide. The overall cell reaction contrasts with acidic Leclanché systems and provides higher cell voltage and stability under load. Key chemical participants include zinc, manganese dioxide, and potassium hydroxide. Side reactions and passivation phenomena relate to zinc morphology and manganese dioxide phase changes, issues studied in laboratories at institutions like Bell Labs and MIT. Electrochemical performance is described using concepts developed by figures associated with Faraday-era electrochemistry and modern researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
A typical cell comprises a steel or stainless-steel can, a gelled or paste zinc powder anode, a separator, and a cathode mix of manganese dioxide with conductive additives, assembled using processes pioneered by manufacturers such as Energizer and Duracell Corporation. Sealing methods and vent designs trace to patents filed by companies including Eveready Battery Company and Union Carbide. Size standardization permits interchangeability across devices designed by firms like Sony, Panasonic, and Samsung Electronics. Mechanical integrity, hermetic seals, and safety vents are engineered following standards from Underwriters Laboratories and International Organization for Standardization.
Alkaline cells provide nominal voltages around 1.5 volts per cell and higher energy density than comparable zinc–carbon cells. Discharge curves and internal resistance vary with load profiles typical of devices from Sony portable radios to Nintendo handheld consoles and Canon cameras. Temperature sensitivity and shelf life are characterized in testing labs at organizations like NASA and National Institute of Standards and Technology. Performance metrics used by manufacturers and regulators include capacity, rate capability, self-discharge, and impedance, which influence product specifications published by Duracell and Energizer.
Large-scale production employs continuous mixing, paste filling, canning, and cell assembly lines established by corporations such as Energizer Holdings, Duracell Corporation, and Panasonic. Raw material supply chains involve global mining and refining sectors that source zinc from countries like Australia and Peru and manganese from producers in South Africa and China. Quality control and environmental compliance are overseen by agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency and industry groups like the Battery Council International. Advances in materials science at universities including Stanford University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology have informed improvements in powder metallurgy and separator technology.
Spent alkaline cells contain residual zinc and manganese compounds that can enter waste streams if not managed; recycling programs run by organizations such as Call2Recycle and municipal waste authorities aim to recover metals and reduce landfill impact. Regulatory frameworks in the European Union, United States (via state and federal regulations), and countries like Japan address collection and recycling targets. Life-cycle assessments conducted by research centers at University of California, Berkeley and Imperial College London compare alkaline cells with rechargeable chemistries such as nickel–metal hydride battery and lithium-ion battery regarding resource use and greenhouse gas emissions.
Alkaline cells serve consumer electronics manufactured by firms like Philips, Panasonic, and Canon, power medical devices regulated by Food and Drug Administration, and support military equipment procured by agencies such as the United States Department of Defense. Market trends tracked by analysts at Bloomberg and IHS Markit show shifts toward rechargeable alternatives in some segments, while demand in emerging markets, logistics for Amazon (company), and retail channels such as Walmart sustain high production volumes. Standards bodies including IEC govern dimensioning and labeling, influencing global trade and interoperability.
Safe use includes avoiding short circuits, preventing ingestion by children addressed in guidance from Consumer Product Safety Commission, and storing cells away from extreme heat per warnings from Underwriters Laboratories. Manufacturers implement child-resistant packaging and include material safety data informed by regulations from agencies such as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the European Chemicals Agency. Emergency procedures for leaks, fires, or misuse reference best practices developed by National Fire Protection Association and hospital protocols at institutions like Mayo Clinic.
Category:Batteries