World War II in Greece

World War II in Greece
Name	Greece (1940–1944)
Caption	Greek national flag during the period
Capital	Athens
Leader	Ioannis Metaxas; King George II of Greece; Georgios Tsolakoglou; Emmanouil Tsouderos
Population	Approx. 7–8 million
Area km2	131957
Era	World War II
Start date	28 October 1940
End date	12 October 1944

World War II in Greece was a complex campaign involving Kingdom of Italy, Nazi Germany, and Kingdom of Bulgaria invasions, extensive Axis occupation and a multifaceted resistance that precipitated political crises culminating in the Greek Civil War. The conflict featured combinations of conventional battles such as the Greco-Italian War and the Battle of Crete, widespread partisan activity by organizations like the EAM and the EDES, severe reprisals including the Massacre of Kalavryta and the Distomo massacre, and strategic interventions by the British Commonwealth and United States that shaped postwar alignments.

Background and Prelude

In the late 1930s the Metaxas Regime sought to modernize the Hellenic Army amid tensions with Fascist Italy and Bulgaria, while European diplomacy involved the Munich Agreement, the Pact of Steel, and the expansion of the Axis Powers. Greece maintained ties with the United Kingdom and the French Third Republic as concerns about Mussolini's ambitions grew after the Italian invasion of Albania (1939). Domestic politics were polarized between royalists around King George II of Greece and republican or leftist currents embodied by figures such as Nikos Zachariadis and organizations like KKE. Strategic calculations by Winston Churchill and the British Royal Navy considered Greek defense vital for control of the Mediterranean Sea and access to Suez Canal routes.

Invasion and Occupation (1940–1944)

On 28 October 1940 the Greco-Italian War began when the Royal Italian Army under directives from Benito Mussolini attacked from Albania, prompting a Greek counteroffensive led by commanders including Alexandros Papagos that drove Italian forces back to Albanian territory. The Battle of Greece escalated after Operation Marita in April 1941 when Heer formations under Feldmarschall Wilhelm List and directives influenced by Adolf Hitler invaded from Bulgaria and Romania, outflanking Greek defenses and compelling the Hellenic Navy and Royal Hellenic Air Force into withdrawal. The Battle of Crete followed in May 1941 as an airborne operation by Luftwaffe paratroopers commanded by generals such as Friedrich-Wilhelm Müller, resulting in heavy losses for both Fallschirmjäger and Allied units including ANZAC and British Commandos, and ushering in occupation zones administered by Italy, Germany, and Bulgaria with collaborationist administrations headed by figures like Georgios Tsolakoglou and later Ioannis Rallis.

Resistance Movements and Civilian Response

Occupation provoked the rise of resistance groups spanning ideological spectra: the communist-dominated EAM and its military wing ELAS, the republican EDES led by Napoleon Zervas, monarchist elements, and smaller royalist and nationalist bands. Partisans engaged in guerrilla warfare—sabotage of Largo infrastructure, disruption of Balkan Railway lines, ambushes against Wehrmacht convoys, and coordination with Special Operations Executive missions such as operations by Klepht and other saboteurs. Urban centers saw strikes and protests organized by trade unions and cultural organizations like National Theater of Greece affiliates, while rural populations provided shelter, food, and recruits despite brutal Axis counterinsurgency tactics including reprisals and scorched-earth measures.

Collaboration, Reprisals, and Atrocities

Collaborationist police units like the Hellenic State Security and paramilitary formations aided Axis repression alongside units from the Security Battalions established under Ioannis Rallis, contributing to arrests, deportations to Nazi concentration camps such as Haifa—and mass executions. Notorious reprisals included the Massacre of Kalavryta, the Distomo massacre, and the Viannos massacres, often precipitated by partisan attacks on occupying units. The Great Famine of 1941–1944 devastated urban populations, exacerbated by Blockade of Greece measures, requisitions by occupying forces, and cuts to International Red Cross relief convoys. Jewish communities suffered deportation from Thessaloniki and other cities to Auschwitz and Treblinka under collaboration and German administration, decimating centuries-old communities.

Liberation and Military Operations

As the Red Army advanced in the Balkans and Allied air superiority increased, Axis forces withdrew from mainland Greece in late 1944 while retaining garrisons such as those on Crete until later capitulations. British-led operations including missions by Special Boat Service, SAS, and regular units of the British Eighth Army supported partisan actions and facilitated evacuations and reoccupation of ports like Piraeus. The Dekemvriana of December 1944 in Athens pitted ELAS fighters against British and royalist forces, resulting in heavy urban combat and negotiated interventions such as the Varkiza Agreement brokered with participation by Ernest Bevin and representatives of the Greek government-in-exile.

Political Consequences and Civil War Prelude

Post-liberation politics saw a struggle among the Kingdom of Greece restorationists, republican and communist factions including KKE, and Western powers seeking strategic stability in the eastern Mediterranean. The Treaty of London and diplomatic interventions by United States Department of State envoys and British officials influenced the return of King George II of Greece and the formation of coalition cabinets under leaders such as Georgios Papandreou (senior). Persistent disarmament disputes, the aftermath of the Varkiza Agreement, and unresolved wartime grievances escalated into the Greek Civil War, where former resistance organizations transformed into rival armed formations, shaping Greece's Cold War alignment and membership in institutions like NATO.

Category:History of Greece