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| Universe (astronomy) | |
|---|---|
| Name | Universe |
| Type | Universe |
Universe (astronomy) is the totality of space, time, matter, energy, and the physical laws that govern them as studied by observational astronomy and theoretical cosmology. It encompasses all known astronomical objects such as stars, planets, galaxies, and galaxy clusters observed with instruments developed by institutions like the European Southern Observatory, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and Space Telescope Science Institute. Research into the Universe integrates observations from facilities including the Hubble Space Telescope, James Webb Space Telescope, Very Large Telescope, and missions by agencies such as National Aeronautics and Space Administration and European Space Agency.
The astronomical Universe is defined as the observable cosmos and its inferred unobservable extensions as framed by theories like the Big Bang and models from the Lambda-CDM model family. Scope discussions involve objects such as the Milky Way, Andromeda Galaxy, Local Group, and larger structures like the Virgo Supercluster, Laniakea Supercluster, and the cosmic web mapped by surveys including the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey, and Dark Energy Survey. Debates over extent and topology engage researchers at institutions like Princeton University, Harvard University, and the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics.
Empirical evidence for the Universe's large-scale structure derives from observations of the cosmic microwave background, redshift surveys, and gravitational lensing measured by projects such as the Planck mission and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe. These data reveal hierarchical structures: galaxies (e.g., Milky Way, M87), groups, clusters like the Coma Cluster, and filaments that form the cosmic web. Phenomena like Type Ia supernovae used by teams including those at the Carnegie Institution for Science and the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics provided evidence for dark energy through observations by collaborations such as the Supernova Cosmology Project.
The Universe's mass-energy budget is commonly partitioned into components: ordinary baryonic matter found in stars, nebulae, and planets studied at observatories like Keck Observatory; non-baryonic dark matter inferred from galaxy rotation curves measured by researchers at the California Institute of Technology and gravitational lensing in systems like Abell clusters; and dark energy driving accelerated expansion as inferred from surveys led by teams at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Contents include stars (e.g., Sun), stellar remnants such as black holes and neutron stars observed in systems like Cygnus X-1 and PSR B1919+21, interstellar medium components, planetary systems including those cataloged by Kepler and Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite, and exotic objects like quasars, gamma-ray burst sources, and magnetars.
The behavior of the Universe is governed by physical frameworks including general relativity as formulated by Albert Einstein, and quantum frameworks developed at institutions like the CERN and Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. Cosmological models employ equations from Friedmann equations derived within general relativity and incorporate particle physics from the Standard Model explored at the Large Hadron Collider. Phenomena such as cosmic inflation were proposed by theorists including Alan Guth and Andrei Linde to explain horizon and flatness problems. Measurements by experiments at Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and IceCube Neutrino Observatory inform high-energy processes shaping cosmological models.
Current consensus situates the origin in a hot, dense state described by Big Bang cosmology, followed by epochs such as recombination (evidenced by the cosmic microwave background), reionization traced by work at the Low-Frequency Array and Hubble Space Telescope, and structure formation driven by gravitational collapse modeled in simulations from groups at Princeton University and Stanford University. Nucleosynthesis predictions from Big Bang nucleosynthesis match abundances measured in stellar atmospheres studied by observatories like Keck Observatory and spectrographs such as those at the European Southern Observatory.
Predicted futures depend on parameters measured by missions like Planck (spacecraft) and surveys such as Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey. Scenarios include continued accelerated expansion due to dark energy (leading to a heat death), altered outcomes in models with phantom energy, and possibilities influenced by theories from researchers at University of Cambridge and Caltech. Large-scale dynamics involve processes like galaxy mergers observed in systems such as the anticipated Milky Way–Andromeda collision and interactions within Virgo Cluster, shaping morphological evolution cataloged in programs like the Galaxy Zoo.
Astronomers study the Universe using electromagnetic observations across radio (e.g., Arecibo Observatory), microwave (e.g., Planck (spacecraft)), infrared (e.g., Spitzer Space Telescope), optical (e.g., Hubble Space Telescope), ultraviolet (e.g., Galaxy Evolution Explorer), X-ray (e.g., Chandra X-ray Observatory), and gamma-ray (e.g., Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope) bands, plus non-electromagnetic messengers like gravitational waves detected by LIGO and Virgo and neutrinos recorded at IceCube Neutrino Observatory. Measurement techniques include spectroscopy performed at European Southern Observatory facilities, astrometry from Gaia (spacecraft), photometry from Kepler (spacecraft), and numerical simulations run on supercomputers at centers such as Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and National Center for Supercomputing Applications.