UN Security Council Resolution 660

UN Security Council Resolution 660
Jonas Jordan, United States Army Corps of Engineers · Public domain · source
Resolution	660
Organ	Security Council
Date	2 August 1990
Meeting	2943
Code	S/RES/660
Subject	Invasion of Kuwait
Result	Adopted

UN Security Council Resolution 660

UN Security Council Resolution 660 was adopted on 2 August 1990 in response to the Invasion of Kuwait by forces of Iraq. The resolution condemned the seizure of Kuwait City and demanded immediate and unconditional withdrawal of Iraqi Armed Forces to positions existing on 1 August 1990, invoking measures under the United Nations Charter to restore international peace and security. It formed a central legal and diplomatic pillar for subsequent United Nations Security Council actions, including sanctions and authorizations related to the Gulf War.

Background

In July and August 1990 tensions between Iraq and Kuwait escalated after disputes over oil production, border demarcation, and allegations concerning Iraqi debt from the aftermath of the Iran–Iraq War. On 2 August 1990, Iraqi forces entered and occupied Kuwait City, prompting emergency sessions of the United Nations Security Council, diplomatic protests by the United States Department of State, statements from Saudi Arabia and member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council, and calls for multilateral action by the Arab League and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Regional security concerns involved transit routes through the Strait of Hormuz and the stationing of forces by the United States Armed Forces and coalition partners in King Khalid International Airport and bases in Dhahran.

Adoption and Voting

Resolution 660 was drafted and negotiated among permanent members of the United States, United Kingdom, France, Soviet Union, and China, with active input from representatives of Egypt, Yemen, and members of the Non-Aligned Movement. The resolution was adopted unanimously by the fifteen members of the Security Council at meeting 2,943, reflecting a rare concurrence between Cold War rivals over the principle of territorial integrity as enshrined in the UN Charter. The vote followed intense diplomatic activity involving envoys such as James Baker and discussions at headquarters in New York City.

Provisions of the Resolution

The text of the resolution condemned the invasion and reaffirmed the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and political independence of Kuwait under provisions of the United Nations Charter. It demanded that Iraqi forces withdraw immediately and unconditionally to positions as of 1 August 1990, called for the release of foreign nationals detained in Kuwait, and urged all states to refrain from any action that would alter the status of Kuwait. The resolution also required all states to respect an embargo on the use of force and called upon member states to provide humanitarian assistance to those affected in Kuwait City and surrounding areas. It authorized the Secretary-General of the United Nations to take appropriate steps to monitor compliance and to report back to the Security Council.

International and Legal Impact

Resolution 660 crystallized support for the principle of territorial integrity and the prohibition of territorial acquisition by force under customary international law and the UN Charter Chapter VII framework. It paved the way for subsequent measures including Security Council Resolution 661 which imposed comprehensive economic sanctions, and later Resolution 678 which authorized member states to use "all necessary means" to restore international peace and security. The resolution’s invocation of immediate withdrawal influenced jurisprudence at the International Court of Justice and informed debates within the International Law Commission about the law of aggression, state responsibility, and the legality of collective enforcement actions. It also shaped policy stances of regional organizations such as the Arab League and the Gulf Cooperation Council regarding collective security mechanisms.

Aftermath and Enforcement

Following the resolution, states implemented diplomatic, economic, and military measures. Resolution 661 initiated sanctions regimes targeting Iraqi oil exports and financial assets, while multinational coalitions coordinated under Operation Desert Shield and later Operation Desert Storm to enforce compliance. The Security Council received regular reports from the Secretary-General and mission envoys monitoring humanitarian conditions in Kuwait City and among displaced populations in Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Enforcement encountered practical challenges including sanctions evasion through third-party states, oil barter arrangements, and clandestine procurement networks involving private entities and state intermediaries.

Criticism and Reception

Reception of Resolution 660 combined widespread international condemnation of the invasion with critiques concerning the selectivity of enforcement, the humanitarian impact of sanctions, and the role of major powers in shaping responses. Humanitarian organizations such as International Committee of the Red Cross and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees raised concerns about civilian welfare and access to assistance. Critics in scholarship and policy circles, including analysts associated with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and the Council on Foreign Relations, debated the implications for state sovereignty, precedential use of Chapter VII measures, and the balance between coercive diplomacy and negotiated settlement. Regional commentators in Baghdad, Riyadh, and Cairo offered divergent appraisals reflecting geopolitical cleavages.

Category:United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning Iraq Category:1990 in international relations