UNFCCC COP21

UNFCCC COP21
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Name	Conference of the Parties (21st session)
Date	30 November – 12 December 2015
Location	Paris, Île-de-France, France
Venue	Le Bourget
Participants	Parties to the UNFCCC, observer states, intergovernmental organizations
Preceding	COP20
Succeeding	COP22

UNFCCC COP21 The 2015 United Nations climate summit in Paris, commonly known as COP21, convened representatives from nearly every state party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to negotiate a global response to anthropogenic climate change. Major actors included heads of state such as Barack Obama, François Hollande, Xi Jinping, and Angela Merkel alongside negotiators from Least Developed Countries, negotiators from the European Union, and delegations from organizations like the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The conference culminated in the adoption of the Paris Agreement and involved diplomacy by figures such as Laurent Fabius, Christiana Figueres, and negotiators from United States, China, India, Brazil, and South Africa.

Background

COP21 was part of the sequence of Conferences of the Parties established under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change following the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. Preceding milestones that shaped the agenda included the Kyoto Protocol negotiations at COP3 and the outcomes of COP15 and COP20. Scientific context derived from assessment reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and extreme-event studies associated with events like Hurricane Katrina and Typhoon Haiyan, while legal and diplomatic frameworks referenced instruments such as the United Nations Charter and precedents like the Montreal Protocol. Economic and technical inputs came from institutions including the World Bank, the International Energy Agency, and non-state networks such as the Climate Vulnerable Forum and the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group.

Negotiations and Key Issues

Key negotiation tracks at COP21 addressed mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology transfer, transparency, and compliance, involving coalitions like the Umbrella Group, the Environmental Integrity Group, the Alliance of Small Island States, and the G77 and China. Finance discussions centered on mobilizing funds via the Green Climate Fund and commitments tied to the $100 billion goal previously articulated at COP16. Contentious issues included differentiation between developed and developing parties rooted in the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities and legal form (legally binding treaty versus political declaration), with legal advice from bodies such as the International Court of Justice cited by some delegations. Procedural leadership by the French presidency under Laurent Fabius and secretariat support from Christiana Figueres shaped workstreams and the schedule leading to high-level segments attended by leaders from United States, China, India, Brazil, South Africa, Russia, and the European Union.

Paris Agreement

The central legal outcome adopted at COP21 was the Paris Agreement, which established a framework for global action including nationally determined contributions, temperature goals, and mechanisms for transparency and global stocktakes. The Agreement set a long-term objective to hold global average temperature increase well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts toward 1.5 °C, reflecting scientific inputs from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and advocacy by groups such as the Alliance of Small Island States and the Least Developed Countries Group. The text addressed mitigation through Nationally Determined Contributions, adaptation via national adaptation plans, and finance via commitments linked to entities like the Green Climate Fund and the Global Environment Facility, while establishing transparency arrangements for reporting and a mechanism for implementation and compliance.

Commitments and Pledges

Before and during COP21, parties submitted Intended Nationally Determined Contributions that became Nationally Determined Contributions upon ratification, with major submissions from United States, China, India, European Union, Japan, Brazil, Canada, Russia, Australia, and South Africa. Non-state actors including the We Mean Business Coalition, the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, and corporations such as Apple Inc., Google, IKEA, and Unilever announced parallel pledges on renewable energy procurement, energy efficiency, deforestation-free supply chains linked to initiatives like the New York Declaration on Forests, and investment shifts influenced by campaigns like 350.org and the Divestment movement. Financial pledges involved multilateral commitments through the Green Climate Fund and bilateral aid offers from countries including Norway, Germany, United Kingdom, and France.

Implementation and Follow-up Mechanisms

Implementation mechanisms articulated in the Paris Agreement included the five-year global stocktake, the transparency framework overseen by the UNFCCC Secretariat, and capacity-building support coordinated with entities such as the Global Environment Facility and the Green Climate Fund. Compliance and facilitation were addressed through an expert-based committee modeled to provide advice and promote implementation, distinct from enforcement regimes like those under the World Trade Organization. Technology transfer mechanisms referenced the Technology Mechanism and collaborations with research institutions like the International Energy Agency and universities including Massachusetts Institute of Technology and University of Oxford. Follow-up relied on ratification processes at national legislatures including parliaments in United States, China, India, and European Union institutions such as the European Parliament.

Outcomes and Impact

Immediate outcomes included adoption of the Paris Agreement and high-profile pledges that catalyzed national policy shifts, influencing legislation such as renewable portfolio standards, emissions trading systems like the European Union Emissions Trading System, and investment flows in clean energy sectors tracked by the International Renewable Energy Agency. The Agreement facilitated subsequent diplomatic initiatives including the Talanoa Dialogue and informed later COPs such as COP24 and COP26. Scientific assessments by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and economic analyses by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund evaluated impacts on mitigation pathways, while actors such as Bill Gates and foundations like the Rockefeller Foundation mobilized philanthropic support for innovation in energy technologies and adaptation.

Criticism and Controversies

Critiques of COP21 and the Paris Agreement emerged from multiple quarters: some legal scholars compared the Agreement’s hybrid legal form to traditional treaties and instruments like the Kyoto Protocol and raised questions about enforceability; climate justice advocates including representatives from the Small Island Developing States and the African Group argued that commitments were insufficient relative to loss and damage experienced in places like Tuvalu and Bangladesh; environmental NGOs such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth criticized reliance on market mechanisms and offsetting measures akin to mechanisms debated under the Clean Development Mechanism; and analysts pointed to the gap between intended contributions and modeled pathways in reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the International Energy Agency. Political controversies included withdrawals and re-engagements by national leaders exemplified by policy shifts in United States administrations and debates in national legislatures such as the United States Congress and the Rajya Sabha.

Category:United Nations climate change conferences