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| Twelver Islam | |
|---|---|
| Name | Twelver Islam |
| Founder | Muhammad |
| Founded date | 7th century CE |
| Founded place | Medina |
| Main texts | Qur'an, Nahj al-Balagha, Al-Kafi |
| Scripture | Qur'an |
| Theology | Shia Islam theology |
| Followers | Unknown (majority in Iran) |
Twelver Islam Twelver Islam is the largest branch of Shia Islam and the predominant religious tradition in Iran, significant in Iraq and communities across Lebanon, Bahrain, Pakistan, India, Azerbaijan, Syria, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Jordan, Yemen, Egypt, United States, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Germany, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, South Africa, Kenya, Nigeria, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. It centers on the leadership of twelve Imams traced from Ali ibn Abi Talib through Muhammad al-Mahdi (Islamic eschatology).
Twelver Islam emerged from early disputes after Battle of Karbala, influenced by events such as the First Fitna, Second Fitna, and the politics surrounding the Umayyad Caliphate and Abbasid Caliphate. Key figures include Ali ibn Abi Talib, Fatimah, Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali, Zayn al-Abidin, Muhammad al-Baqir, Ja'far al-Sadiq, and later scholars like Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, Sharif al-Murtada, and Shaykh Tusi. Texts central to Twelver scholasticism include the Qur'an, collections by Muhammad al-Kulayni such as Al-Kafi, works by Shaykh al-Tusi and polemical writings responding to Mu'tazila, Ash'ari, and Maturidi theology.
Twelver theology affirms the oneness of Allah while articulating doctrines about Imamate (Shia) tracing twelve Imams: Ali ibn Abi Talib, Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali, Ali Zayn al-Abidin, Muhammad al-Baqir, Ja'far al-Sadiq, Musa al-Kadhim, Ali al-Ridha, Muhammad al-Jawad, Ali al-Hadi, Hasan al-Askari, and Muhammad al-Mahdi (Islamic eschatology). The community holds the occultation doctrine tied to Muhammad al-Mahdi (Islamic eschatology) and expects eschatological return linked to narratives in Sahih al-Bukhari critiques and commentaries by Ibn Khaldun and Al-Tabari. Jurisprudence in Twelver practice developed through schools formed by scholars like Ja'far al-Sadiq and codified by jurists such as Allamah Tabatabai, Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, Mirza Husayn Na'ini, and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Philosophical engagement occurred with figures including Avicenna, Al-Ghazali (in Sunni context), and Mulla Sadra.
Early consolidation occurred under Abbasid rule, with intellectual centers in Kufa, Basra, Nishapur, and later Qom and Najaf. Twelver communities faced persecution under the Umayyad Caliphate and negotiated position under the Abbasid Caliphate; notable episodes include the Battle of Karbala and the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali. Institutionalization advanced during the Safavid dynasty which established Twelver Islam as state religion in Safavid Iran, reshaping relations with Ottoman Empire, Mughal Empire, and Qajar Iran. Modern history engages events like the Constitutional Revolution (Iran), the Iranian Revolution, and the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran under Ruhollah Khomeini. Najaf seminaries and Qom seminaries produced jurists like Ali al-Sistani, Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr, Abdolkarim Soroush, and Hossein Nasr.
Rituals include daily prayers (salat) performed with jurisprudential guidance from maraji' such as Ali al-Sistani and Hossein Vahid Khorasani, fasting during Ramadan, and pilgrimage to shrines like Imam Ali Shrine, Imam Husayn Shrine, Jamkaran Mosque, and Shrine of Fātimah Masumeh. Mourning ceremonies during Muharram, particularly observance of Ashura, feature processions in Karbala and commemorations led by scholars and orators such as Seyyed Hossein Borujerdi and Allama Tabatabai. Legal practices derive from Ja'fari jurisprudence with codifiers like Sayyid Mujtaba Musavi Lari and contemporary manuals used in seminaries of Qom and Najaf. Ritual exchange includes visitation (ziyarat) traditions tied to sites like Karbala, Najaf, Mashhad, and Qom and devotional literature including works by Ibn Babawayh.
Authority structures center on maraji' (sources of emulation) such as Ali Khamenei, Ali al-Sistani, and others, and institutional bodies including Hawza seminaries in Qom and Najaf, the Assembly of Experts and Guardian Council in Iran, and community organizations across diaspora centers in London, New York City, Toronto, Sydney, and Paris. Clerical ranks trace from students to mujtahids and ayatollahs, with modern political theology shaped by texts like Wilayat al-Faqih by Ruhollah Khomeini. Non-clerical organizations include Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (post-revolutionary Iran), charitable networks such as Astan Quds Razavi, and educational institutions like Al-Mustafa International University and Hawza Ilmiyya Qom.
Twelver communities form majorities in Iran, Iraq, and Azerbaijan and significant minorities in Lebanon, Bahrain, Pakistan, India, and sections of Turkey and Syria. Cultural expressions appear in Persian literature by Rumi (influence), Hafez (cultural milieu), Saadi, Firdowsi (historical context), and in Arabic devotional poetry by Al-Sharif al-Radi. Architectural heritage includes shrines in Karbala, Najaf, Mashhad, and Qom; artistic traditions include calligraphy related to the Qur'an and lamentation arts linked to Ta'zieh performances in Iran and Iraq. Political influence is visible in state structures of Safavid Iran, the Islamic Republic of Iran, and parties like the Islamic Dawa Party and movements such as Hezbollah.
Current debates engage relations with Sunni Islam leadership like Grand Imam of Al-Azhar, geopolitical tensions involving Saudi Arabia, United States, Israel, and Turkey, and activism from figures such as Moqtada al-Sadr, Nouri al-Maliki, Hassan Nasrallah, Ali Khamenei, and Muqtada al-Sadr in Iraq. Intellectual movements include reformist thinkers like Abdolkarim Soroush, conservative jurists like Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi, and diasporic organizations in North America and Europe addressing secularization, interfaith dialogue with institutions like Vatican outreach, and human rights debates involving United Nations bodies. Socioeconomic challenges intersect with uprisings such as the Green Movement (Iran) and protests in Iraq, Lebanon, and Bahrain, and legal controversies over personal status laws adjudicated by courts influenced by jurists and scholars in Qom and Najaf.