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| Turkish makam | |
|---|---|
| Name | Turkish makam |
| Cultural origin | Ottoman Empire |
| Instruments | ney, oud, kemençe, kanun, tanbur, violin |
Turkish makam is a system of melodic modes and compositional-practical rules used in classical Ottoman Empire and regional Anatolia music, shaping melody, tuning, improvisation, and repertoire. It provides frameworks for composition and improvisation across genres associated with institutions such as the Mevlevi Order, courts of Sultan Mehmed II, and salons linked to the Tanzimat era, intersecting with vocal and instrumental traditions from cities like Istanbul, Edirne, and Bursa. Its study connects scholars and performers from conservatories such as the Istanbul Technical University Turkish Music State Conservatory to ethnomusicologists at institutions like the British Museum and the Smithsonian Institution.
The term derives from Arabic and Persian linguistic environments present in the Ottoman Empire, blending loanwords circulating among Persian language courts, Arabic language scholars, and Turkish language literati during interactions between figures like Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent and poets of the Divan literature milieu. Early theoretical treatises by authors from the Seljuk Empire and medieval centers such as Baghdad and Konya influenced nomenclature that later codified at Istanbul academies. Key historical lexicographers and theorists active in the Topkapı Palace library era helped fix terminology used by performers in the Mevlevi Order and the Bektashi Order.
Roots trace to modal practices circulating across the Anatolian Beyliks, interactions with Byzantine Empire chant and Persian classical music, and exchanges during the Crusades and Silk Road commerce connecting Samarkand and Aleppo. Ottoman court patronage under rulers like Selim I and Ahmed I supported theoretical consolidation alongside court ensembles patronized by the Sultanate of Rum successors. In the 18th and 19th centuries, reform movements tied to the Tanzimat reforms and musical salons in Pera introduced Western notation contacts with figures associated with European conservatories; performers from families such as the Tanburi Cemil Bey lineage transmitted repertoire into the 20th century through recordings at studios like Electrola and broadcasts on Istanbul Radio.
The system organizes scales into named modes with tonic centers (called makam names often after regions or composers), principal tetrachords and pentachords, and characteristic pitch progression models formalized in treatises by theorists such as Kudümîzâde İsmail Hakkı and later pedagogues at the Darülelhan school. Concepts parallel to maqam traditions from Iraq and Egypt appear alongside unique intervallic divisions like commas approximated in the just intonation and Pythagorean tuning debates represented in Ottoman theoretical manuscripts. Composer-improviser roles exemplified by masters like Dede Efendi bespoke modal modulation rules, melodic sayr pathways, and focal notes (güçlü, durak) codified into pedagogical curricula at institutions such as the Istanbul Municipality Conservatory.
Rhythmic cycles (usul) interlock with melodic makams in performance, with long and complex meters used by composers including Hacı Arif Bey and Hamparsum Limonciyan. Usul forms like aksak patterns link to folk meters heard in regions such as Rize and Van, while court pieces reflect compound cycles favored in Istanbul salons. Relationships between makam families (e.g., hüseyni, rast, uşşak lineages) involve modulation techniques paralleled in Arabic maqam practice of Iraq and Syria, and influenced by dance genres from Balkan ensembles and ceremonial repertory of the Janissaries.
Performance historically centers on ensembles combining ney flute, oud lute, kanun zither, tanbur long-necked lute, violin, and bowed instruments like the kemençe, with vocal forms including türkü and classical Ottoman forms such as fasıl and gazel. Professional guilds, courtiers, Mevlevi sema ceremonies, and public stages in neighborhoods like Galata shaped stylistic delivery; notable performers include Tanburi Cemil Bey, Munir Nurettin Selçuk, and Zeki Müren. Recording industry developments connected to labels operating in Istanbul and transnational circuits brought makam performances to diasporic communities in cities like Berlin and Paris.
Transmission combined oral master-apprentice pedagogy, manuscript collections preserved in the Topkapı Palace Museum and private archives, and later standardized systems such as the Hamparsum notation developed by Hamparsum Limonciyan and modified adaptations for staff notation used in conservatories like the Istanbul University State Conservatory. Ethnomusicologists at institutions including the Library of Congress and researchers like Erol Sayan and Dr. Aydin Tan documented repertoire; collectors such as Baha Gelenbevi contributed to recorded archives. Modern digital databases and notation software now coexist with traditional rote learning in madrasa-like studios within cultural centers like the Istanbul Cultural Center.
Makam practice influenced composers in the late Ottoman and Republican periods such as Ahmed Adnan Saygun, Ulvi Cemal Erkin, and Bülent Arel, who integrated modal elements into symphonic and electronic works often premiered at venues including the Istanbul State Opera and international festivals like the Edinburgh Festival. Fusion projects link makam to jazz musicians in New York and experimental composers in Berlin, while pop artists and film composers in Ankara and Istanbul rework modal motifs. Cross-cultural collaborations with ensembles from Greece, Bulgaria, Iran, and Armenia underscore makam’s continuing adaptability in global contemporary music scenes.
Category:Turkish music Category:Ottoman culture