Treaty of 1855 (United States)

Treaty of 1855 (United States)
Name	Treaty of 1855
Date signed	1855
Location signed	Washington, D.C.
Parties	United States and several Native American tribes
Language	English language

Treaty of 1855 (United States) was a series of mid‑19th century agreements negotiated between agents of the United States and multiple tribes intended to settle land claims, establish reservations, and define relations amid westward expansion. The treaties were negotiated in the context of political pressures from officials in Franklin Pierce's administration, settlers arriving via Oregon Trail and gold rush routes, and competing claims involving territorial governments such as Oregon Territory and Washington Territory. Scholars situate these treaties within broader U.S. policy threads including precedents set by the Treaty of Greenville, the Fort Laramie Treaty, and later instruments like the Indian Appropriations Act.

Background and Negotiation

Negotiations occurred against the backdrop of manifest destiny debates in the United States Congress, pressures from territorial officials including Isaac Stevens and Joel Palmer, and diplomatic efforts by agents from the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the War Department. The sessions involved intermediaries familiar with tribal leaders from the Cayuse people, Umatilla people, Nez Perce, Yakama, Spokane people, and other Plateau peoples, and were influenced by missionaries such as Marcus Whitman and Samuel Parker. Negotiators referenced prior accords like the Treaty of Medicine Creek and practices from the Lewis and Clark Expedition era, while attorneys and territorial judges from Multnomah County and Walla Walla observed proceedings. Railroad promoters, including representatives of the Northern Pacific Railway, lobbied Washington, complicating discussions with economic actors from San Francisco and St. Louis.

Terms and Provisions

The agreements allocated specific reservation boundaries, annuities, and provisions for agriculture, education, and resource use, echoing templates from the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek and the Treaty of New Echota. Key provisions promised annual payments under schedules administered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, established land cessions recognized by the United States Senate, and stipulated provisions for moving tribal members to designated reservations near rivers such as the Columbia River and the Snake River. Clauses addressed hunting and fishing rights, often referencing customary use in accord with practices noted in Lewis and Clark journals and reports by Joel Palmer. The treaties included enforcement mechanisms assigning responsibility to officers appointed by President Franklin Pierce and the United States Army, and contained articles concerning citizenship-like statuses reminiscent of provisions in the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 lineage.

Signatory Tribes and U.S. Representatives

Signatories on behalf of tribes included leaders from the Nez Perce, Yakama, Umatilla, Cayuse, Walla Walla people, Spokane people, and allied bands such as the Palouse people and Cowlitz. U.S. signatories comprised federal agents, military officers, and political appointees including delegates from the Bureau of Indian Affairs, representatives of the War Department, and envoys authorized by President Franklin Pierce. Congressional actors who later debated ratification included members from Congressional delegations from Oregon and territorial legislatures, while witnesses and interpreters included figures connected to the Hudson's Bay Company and missionary networks like the Methodist Mission.

Implementation and Enforcement

Implementation relied on administrative structures centered in Washington, D.C. and regional agencies in Oregon City and military posts including Fort Vancouver and Fort Walla Walla. Enforcement often fell to officers from the United States Army and agents of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, while disputes over boundary surveys implicated the United States Coast Survey and private surveyors financed by entities such as the Hudson's Bay Company and railroad interests like Northern Pacific Railway. Problems in execution mirrored difficulties encountered after the Treaty of Point Elliott and culminated in seasons of nonpayment and contested annuities that led to blockades, petitions filed with members of United States Congress, and appeals to federal judges in circuits covering Oregon and Washington Territory.

Impact on Native Communities

The treaties reshaped lifeways for tribes including the Nez Perce, Yakama, and Umatilla by restricting access to traditional seasonal grounds, altering hunting and fishing practices along the Columbia River and Snake River, and accelerating dependency on annuity provisions administered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Social changes paralleled those documented in studies of the Yankton Sioux and the Choctaw Nation after their own treaties, affecting cultural transmission among elders such as noted leaders and spiritual figures. Economic transformations linked to influxes of settlers and enterprises from San Francisco and Portland produced disputes involving timber firms, fishing companies, and agricultural interests.

Legal Challenges and Subsequent Litigation

Litigation arising from the treaties engaged federal courts including the United States Supreme Court and regional circuits, invoking precedents like Worcester v. Georgia and later cases addressing treaty fishing rights similar to United States v. Winans. Tribes and advocates brought suits regarding promised annuities, reservation boundaries, and the retention of hunting and fishing rights, generating decisions influenced by doctrines from the Marshall Court and statutory frameworks such as the Indian Appropriations Act. Administrative appeals and congressional investigations echoed earlier inquiries into treaty compliance like those following the Black Hawk War.

Legacy and Historical Interpretations

Historians and legal scholars interpret the 1855 agreements within narratives that include manifest destiny, settler colonialism analyses found in work on the Trail of Tears, and critiques rooted in tribal sovereignty scholarship associated with scholars who study the Marshall Trilogy. Interpretations link the treaties to subsequent conflicts such as the Nez Perce War and policy shifts culminating in later legislation referenced by the Indian Reorganization Act. Commemorations and commemorative plaques in places like Walla Walla and Pendleton reflect contested memory debates involving tribal governments, state officials, and the National Park Service.

Category:United States treaties Category:Native American history