Time-and-motion study

Time-and-motion study
Frank Bunker Gilbreth and Lillian M. Gilbreth · Public Domain · source
Name	Time-and-motion study
Field	Industrial engineering, management science

Time-and-motion study is a quantitative technique that analyzes the time spent and motions performed to complete tasks, originating in industrial practice to increase productivity and standardize work. It combines systematic observation, measurement, and analysis to establish best practices, reduce waste, and set performance standards across workplaces and processes. The method has influenced labor policy, manufacturing, healthcare, and service industries worldwide.

History

Time-and-motion study traces roots through intersecting developments in the late 19th and early 20th centuries involving figures and institutions in industrial reform and scientific management. Early precursors include practices associated with Samuel Gompers, Andrew Carnegie, George Westinghouse, Alexander Hamilton (Founding Father), and enterprises such as U.S. Steel, General Electric, and Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Formalization occurred with contributions by Frederick Winslow Taylor, Frank B. Gilbreth, and Lillian M. Gilbreth following influences from Henry Ford and factories like the Ford Motor Company River Rouge Complex and the Packard Motor Car Company. Academic and governmental adoption involved organizations such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard Business School, Bureau of Labor Statistics, and the National Recovery Administration era reforms. International diffusion linked practices to sites like Krupp, Siemens, Toyota, and Nippon Steel Corporation, and to postwar reconstruction programs overseen by entities including the Marshall Plan and the International Labour Organization.

Methodology

Methodology combines timekeeping instruments, motion analysis, and statistical aggregation to derive work standards and allowances. Typical procedures reference tools developed in laboratories and firms associated with Bell Labs, DuPont, General Motors, and AlliedSignal while drawing on ergonomic insights championed by scholars at Stanford University, University of Michigan, Cornell University, and University of California, Berkeley. Steps include task breakdown influenced by frameworks from Frederick Winslow Taylor's studies, motion-picture analysis inspired by the Gilbreths, and sampling techniques aligned with practices at Census Bureau and National Bureau of Economic Research. Data collection employs devices and protocols standard in labs such as MIT Sloan School of Management and testing centers like Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

Applications

Applications span manufacturing, logistics, healthcare, and service delivery, informing operations at firms like Toyota Motor Corporation, Boeing, Siemens AG, and Procter & Gamble. In healthcare, hospitals including Mayo Clinic, Cleveland Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, and systems like NHS England and Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services have used study-derived standards for workflow and staffing. Public sector uses include process optimization in agencies like United States Postal Service, Federal Aviation Administration, and municipal services in cities such as New York City, Tokyo, and London. In technology and software, organizations such as Intel Corporation, Microsoft, Google, and Amazon (company) adapt time-motion principles for human-computer interaction and productivity analytics.

Tools and Techniques

Tools and techniques evolved from stopwatches and film to digital sensors, video analytics, and motion-capture systems developed by companies like Sony, Panasonic, GoPro, Microsoft Kinect, and Qualcomm. Analytical software from firms such as Siemens PLM Software, PTC Inc., Dassault Systèmes, SAP SE, and IBM supports simulation, workflow mapping, and statistical testing. Measurement protocols reference standards promulgated by bodies like American National Standards Institute, International Organization for Standardization, and research methods taught at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Carnegie Mellon University. Techniques include work sampling, time study, predetermined motion time systems (PMTS) influenced by teams connected to General Electric research labs, and motion analysis rooted in film work by the Gilbreths and later biomechanical studies at University of Oxford and Imperial College London.

Criticisms and Limitations

Criticisms emerged from labor leaders and scholars connected to AFL–CIO, Congress of Industrial Organizations, Karl Marx-inspired theorists, and academic critics at University of Chicago and London School of Economics who argued that studies can deskill labor and prioritize efficiency over worker welfare. Legal and ethical debates involved regulators such as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and advocacy groups like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch concerning privacy and surveillance when sensor and video tools are used. Methodological limitations noted by researchers at Princeton University, Yale University, and Columbia University include observer bias, Hawthorne effect discussions originating from Western Electric studies, and applicability constraints in creative or knowledge-intensive work as seen in firms like Pixar Animation Studios and McKinsey & Company.

Case Studies and Examples

Historic case studies include the productivity transformations at Ford Motor Company's assembly lines, efficiency programs at Bethlehem Steel Corporation, and workplace redesigns at Hershey Company. Healthcare examples involve process reengineering at Mayo Clinic and patient-flow optimization in National Health Service (England) pilots. Logistics and retail cases include warehouse optimization at Walmart, fulfillment innovations at Amazon (company), and distribution improvements at FedEx. Technology-sector examples cover ergonomic interventions at Intel Corporation and workflow analytics at Google and Microsoft. International development projects applying time-motion methods appeared in programs by the World Bank, United Nations Development Programme, and bilateral initiatives from USAID.

Category:Industrial engineering