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| The Second Triumvirate | |
|---|---|
| Name | Second Triumvirate |
| Native name | Triumviri Rei Publicae Constituendae |
| Formation | 43 BC |
| Founders | Octavian, Mark Antony, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus |
| Dissolution | 33 BC |
| Location | Roman Republic |
| Language | Latin |
| Key people | Gaius Julius Caesar, Cleopatra VII Philopator, Marcus Junius Brutus, Gaius Cassius Longinus, Publius Clodius Pulcher, Lucius Munatius Plancus |
The Second Triumvirate was the formal political alliance and legally established magistracy formed in 43 BC by Octavian, Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus to consolidate control after the assassination of Gaius Julius Caesar. It exercised extraordinary powers to suppress opponents such as Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, reorganize provinces like Cisalpine Gaul and Asia (Roman province), and distribute wealth and offices through proscriptions and military command. The alliance reshaped the late Roman Republic's political landscape, precipitating the final conflicts that culminated in the rise of Octavian as Augustus and the transition to the Roman Empire.
The formation followed the assassination of Gaius Julius Caesar on the Ides of March 44 BC and political struggles involving figures such as Mark Antony, Octavian, Marcus Junius Brutus, Gaius Cassius Longinus, and factions including supporters of Caesarion and the senatorial party led by Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus. In the wake of the Liberators' civil war and the aftermath of the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), shifting alliances among Cicero, Gaius Octavius (Octavian), Fulvia, Lucius Antonius, Titus Labienus, and provincial governors like Lucius Munatius Plancus catalyzed negotiations. The alliance was formalized by a legal instrument approved by the Roman Senate and ratified through mechanisms involving provincial allocations shared among Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus, after negotiations with figures such as Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and aristocrats like Gaius Norbanus Balbus.
The triumviral commission derived authority from a law enacted by the Senate and assemblies influenced by triumviral agents, conferring extraordinary imperium and magistracies similar to earlier arrangements such as the powers held by Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix. The commission's legal basis allowed the issuance of proscriptions, confiscation of property from opponents like Publius Cornelius Dolabella and allocation of provincial commands across regions including Hispania Tarraconensis, Achaea (senatorial province), and Syria (Roman province). Administrative reforms affected municipal institutions in Rome, taxation overseen by collectors associated with allies like Gaius Annius Gallus, and settlement of veterans from legions previously commanded by Julius Caesar and Marcus Licinius Crassus (grandson). The triumvirs exercised consular and promagisterial powers, superseding ordinary magistrates such as Gaius Asinius Pollio and reshaping senatorial rolls through exclusions and appointments.
Triumviral forces, commanded by commanders including Gaius Norbanus Balbus and generals like Lucius Antonius, engaged in decisive actions against the Liberators at battles culminating in Battle of Philippi (42 BC)],] where forces of Antony and Octavian defeated Brutus and Cassius. Proscriptions removed rivals—targets included Marcus Tullius Cicero, Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, and other senators—enriching supporters such as Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and enabling settlements in provinces like Gallia Narbonensis. The triumvirate negotiated with foreign rulers such as Philippi-era intermediaries and with dynasts including Cleopatra VII Philopator of Ptolemaic Egypt, affecting grain supplies and naval command in the eastern Mediterranean. Military deployments secured frontiers against threats from Parthia-aligned forces and uprisings in Illyricum and Sicily (Roman province), while diplomatic missions engaged envoys from states like Armenia and client kings such as Herod the Great.
Tensions arose as power shifted: Lepidus was marginalized after attempting to assert control over Hispania and Africa Proconsularis, leading to his removal by Octavian and Antony and exile to Circeii. Rivalry between Antony and Octavian intensified through competing patronage networks involving Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Fulvia, and municipal allies like Lucius Antonius; Antony's alliance with Cleopatra VII Philopator and his eastern settlements strained relations with Roman elites including Seneca the Elder and former supporters such as Gaius Asinius Pollio. Military defections, contested provincial assignments, and disputes over the distribution of veterans and revenues provoked incidents like the Perusine War, where forces under Lucius Antonius clashed with Octavian's legions commanded by Agrippa. Strategic setbacks and propaganda campaigns involving orators like Marcus Tullius Cicero's legacy and political writings contributed to the triumvirate's fragmentation, culminating in open conflict such as the naval confrontation of Actium.
The collapse of the triumvirate paved the way for Octavian's sole rule after the defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII Philopator at Battle of Actium (31 BC) and subsequent events in Alexandria; Lepidus's political career effectively ended, while veterans were settled in colonies like those in Campania and Venetia et Histria. The transition transformed republican institutions and influenced constitutional precedents later associated with Augustus and histories by writers such as Appian, Plutarch, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio. Its practices—proscriptions, provincial reallocation, and concentration of imperium—affected later episodes involving figures like Tiberius, Caligula, and later legal interpretations in works by Gaius (jurist) and commentators of the Late Roman Republic. The period generated cultural responses in literature and art, influencing portrayals by poets such as Virgil, Horace, and historians including Velleius Paterculus.