The History of England from the Accession of James the Second

The History of England from the Accession of James the Second
Title	The History of England from the Accession of James the Second
Author	Thomas Babington Macaulay (original work)
Period	1685–1694
Region	Kingdom of England
Language	English

The History of England from the Accession of James the Second presents political, religious, diplomatic, and military developments in late 17th‑century England beginning with the accession of James II of England in 1685 and extending through the reigns of William III of England, Mary II of England, and the 1690s. The narrative intertwines the actions of royal figures, parliamentary factions, and religious groups with campaigns in Ireland, conflicts on the Continent, and constitutional transformations culminating in the Glorious Revolution and the Bill of Rights 1689. This period reshaped institutions such as the Parliament of England, the Church of England, and the emergent financial architecture centered on the Bank of England and the National Debt.

Background: Political and Religious Context before 1685

The accession of James II of England followed the reign of his brother Charles II of England and the complex legacy of the English Civil War, the Interregnum, and the Restoration settlement that sought accommodation between the Cavaliers and former Roundheads. Factional alignments like the Tories and Whigs emerged during controversies over the Exclusion Crisis and the succession of a Catholic heir, provoking events involving figures such as Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury and John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough in his early career. Religious tensions among the Anglicans, Roman Catholicism, Presbyterianism, and Nonconformist groups were intensified by policies under ministers like Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon and litigations such as the Popish Plot aftermath, while legal instruments like the Test Acts constrained officeholding and intensified political alignments.

Reign of James II (1685–1688)

James II of England pursued policies favoring Roman Catholicism and attempted to expand royal prerogative, provoking confrontation with the Anglican establishment, leading politicians, and judges including figures like William Sancroft and George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys. His use of the Suspension of the Test Acts by dispensing power, appointment of Catholics such as Edward Petre and Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell to key posts, and conflicts over the Seven Bishops case showcased tensions with the High Church faction and House of Commons. The 1685 rebellions—the Monmouth Rebellion culminating in the Battle of Sedgemoor and subsequent reprisals—exposed divisions while military leaders such as James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth and jurists like Jeffreys became notorious in the national memory. Foreign policy under James intersected with continental actors including Louis XIV of France and the Dutch Republic, affecting alliances and colonial policy.

The Glorious Revolution and the Fall of James II (1688–1689)

The invitation to William III of Orange by prominent English figures—among them Henry Compton, Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury, and members of the Whig Junto—sparked the Glorious Revolution of 1688, when William landed at Torbay and marched on London. Key episodes included defections by officers loyal to figures such as John Churchill and the flight of James to France, where he sought refuge at the court of Louis XIV of France. The Convention Parliament declared that James had abdicated, leading to the joint sovereignty of William and Mary under constitutional instruments such as the Declaration of Right and the Bill of Rights 1689, while Jacobite loyalty persisted under leaders like James II (as James VII of Scotland) and supporters including Viscount Dundee in Scotland and Patrick Sarsfield in Ireland.

William and Mary: Constitutional Settlement and Religious Policy (1689–1694)

The joint monarchy of William III of England and Mary II of England codified limits on monarchy via the Bill of Rights 1689, parliamentary assertions in the Convention Parliament, and the Act of Settlement precursors that shaped succession debates involving houses such as the House of Stuart and the later House of Hanover. Religious settlement under William and Mary balanced enforcement of the Toleration Act 1689 for Nonconformists with continued restrictions under the Test Acts for Catholics, affecting clergy in institutions like St Paul's Cathedral and universities such as University of Oxford and University of Cambridge. Key ministers including John Somers, 1st Baron Somers and William Russell, Lord Russell influenced legal and constitutional reform, while administration confronted Jacobite plots and diplomatic crises with states such as Spain and the Holy Roman Empire.

Domestic Developments: Economy, Society, and Culture in the 1690s

The 1690s witnessed economic and social change marked by the founding of the Bank of England in 1694, the growth of the financial revolution, and expanding English involvement in transatlantic trade linking ports like London, Bristol, and Liverpool with colonies including Jamaica and Virginia Colony. Cultural life featured figures such as John Locke, Isaac Newton, Aphra Behn, and institutions like the Royal Society, while print culture expanded through newspapers and pamphleteers—examples include the influence of Daniel Defoe and satirists like Jonathan Swift (later). Social unrest, poor harvests, and crises such as the Bubonic plague outbreaks earlier in the century influenced demography and prompted poor relief measures in parishes influenced by magistrates and reformers like Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer.

Foreign Policy and Wars: Europe and Ireland

England’s foreign policy merged continental coalition building against Louis XIV of France with military campaigns in Ireland and involvement in the Nine Years' War (War of the Grand Alliance) alongside allies such as the Dutch Republic, the Holy Roman Empire, and Spain. The Irish theatre saw the Williamite War in Ireland with battles including the Battle of the Boyne and sieges such as Siege of Limerick (1691), featuring commanders like Williamite leaders and Jacobite generals including Patrick Sarsfield and the intervention of James II from France. Naval engagements and privateering involved officers like Admiral Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington and affected colonial contests with France in places like Acadia and Hudson Bay.

Legacy and Historiography of the Period

Historians have debated whether the Glorious Revolution constituted a conservative settlement among elites or a revolutionary constitutional moment; scholars including Thomas Babington Macaulay, Lord Acton, J. R. Green, and modern writers such as J. P. Kenyon and Christopher Hill have variously emphasized legal continuity, elite compromise, or social conflict. The period’s legacy includes the Bill of Rights 1689, establishment of parliamentary supremacy, the rise of party politics with the Tory and Whig dichotomy, and financial innovations culminating in institutions like the Bank of England and policies leading toward the Industrial Revolution. Ongoing debates engage sources such as state papers, pamphlets, and sermons by figures like Bishop Gilbert Burnet and archival materials from The National Archives (United Kingdom) to reassess trajectories in British history and the broader European history of the late 17th century.

Category:History of England