Targumim

Targumim
Name	Targumim
Caption	Ancient manuscript fragment
Language	Hebrew, Aramaic
Period	Second Temple period–medieval
Genres	Biblical translation, paraphrase, exposition

Targumim

Targumim are Aramaic renderings and interpretive translations of the Hebrew Bible traditionally used in Second Temple Judaism and later Jewish communities, associated with rabbinic figures and liturgical practice. They function as both vernacular translations and exegetical paraphrases that intersect with traditions linked to Pharisees, Talmud, Masoretes, Saadia Gaon, and medieval scholars such as Rashi and Maimonides. Their manuscript tradition spans collections connected to communities in Babylonia, Palestine, Spain, and Yemen.

Etymology and Definition

The term derives from the Aramaic root targem meaning "to translate" and appears in rabbinic literature alongside names of translators and schools like Onkelos and Jonathan ben Uzziel, reflecting use in contexts involving figures such as Hillel the Elder, Rabbi Akiva, Rabbi Yohanan, and institutions like the Sanhedrin. In rabbinic sources of the Mishnah and Jerusalem Talmud the term designates authoritative vernacular renderings used in synagogues associated with rites in cities such as Jerusalem and Babylon.

History and Development

Development traces to bilingual environments after the Babylonian captivity when Aramaic became dominant among Jews in Achaemenid Empire provinces and later under Seleucid Empire and Roman Empire rule. Early stages intersect with exegetical enterprises linked to schools of Ezra the Scribe, Nehemiah, and later sages cited in the Talmud Bavli and Talmud Yerushalmi. Over time, compositions expanded during the late antique period alongside liturgical developments in communities under authorities such as the Sasanian Empire, Byzantine Empire, and medieval polities like Umayyad Caliphate and Abbasid Caliphate.

Major Targumim (Targum Onkelos, Targum Jonathan, etc.)

The canonical Aramaic Torah rendering attributed in tradition to Onkelos became standard in Babylonian rite and is often paired in manuscripts with targumim on the Prophets attributed to Jonathan ben Uzziel and linked in reception history to figures such as Saadia Gaon. Other significant works include targumim on the Writings associated with exegetes mentioned by Ibn Ezra and Nachmanides, and fragmentary Aramaic renderings preserved in collections connected to Cairo Geniza deposits and libraries like those of Saint Catherine's Monastery.

Language, Style, and Translation Techniques

Targumic language reflects dialects of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic and Western Aramaic found in inscriptions and texts associated with regions such as Nabataea and Galilee, exhibiting features compared to corpora like the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Peshitta. Stylistically, they employ paraphrase, expansion, exegetical insertion, and harmonization techniques paralleled in works by Philo of Alexandria, Josephus, and Greek translators in Hellenistic contexts. Methods include interpretive substitution for anthropomorphism mentioned in traditions linked to Saul of Tarsus and theological concerns resonant with positions in writings of Maimonides and Karaite critics.

Religious and Liturgical Use

Targumim functioned in synagogue practice where public reading of scripture was accompanied by vernacular explanation, a custom referenced in sources connected to the Sifre, Midrash Rabbah, and liturgical rites practiced in communities from Sepharad to Ashkenaz. Their authority is reflected in medieval legal responsa by authorities like Rashi, Ramban (Nachmanides), and rulings appearing in codes such as the Shulchan Aruch. Liturgical recitation and private study often invoked targumic passages alongside piyutim credited to poets like Yehuda Halevi and liturgical formulations preserved in geniza fragments.

Textual Transmission and Manuscripts

Manuscript evidence includes medieval codices preserved in repositories such as the Cairo Geniza, libraries of Bodleian Library, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, and collections in Vatican Library and British Library. Critical editions rely on comparative analysis with witnesses including targumic fragments from the Dead Sea Scrolls period, citations in the Talmud Bavli, translations in the Septuagint, and quotations by medieval commentators like Abravanel. Paleographic and codicological studies reference scribal hands familiar from codices of Masoretic Text tradition and marginalia linked to scholars such as Jacob ben Chayyim.

Modern Scholarship and Critical Studies

Contemporary research engages philology, redaction criticism, and reception history with notable contributors including scholars from institutions like Hebrew University of Jerusalem, University of Oxford, University of Cambridge, and the Jewish Theological Seminary. Important studies compare targumic corpora with materials edited in series such as the Princeton Theological Monograph Series and publications by institutes like the Academy of the Hebrew Language and the American Academy for Jewish Research. Debates involve dating proposals invoking events tied to Bar Kokhba revolt and sociolinguistic models referencing contacts with Samaritans and Syriac traditions; recent work employs manuscript imaging and digital corpora developed in projects at Cambridge University Library and The National Library of Israel.

Category:Aramaic translations Category:Jewish liturgical texts