Syrian civil war (2011–present)

Syrian civil war (2011–present)
Conflict	Syrian civil war (2011–present)
Caption	Control map, 2020
Date	March 2011 – present
Place	Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Turkey, Mediterranean Sea
Result	Ongoing; territorial fragmentation, international interventions, peace negotiations

Syrian civil war (2011–present) The armed conflict that began in March 2011 in Damascus and Daraa Governorate evolved into a multi-sided war involving national, regional, and international actors, producing widespread destruction across Aleppo, Homs, Idlib Governorate, and Raqqa. What began with protests linked to the Arab Spring and calls for reform transformed into battles between forces loyal to President Bashar al-Assad, opposition coalitions such as the Free Syrian Army, jihadist groups including Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and al-Nusra Front, and foreign militaries from Russia, United States, Turkey, Iran, and others. The conflict's trajectory has been shaped by sieges, aerial bombardment, insurgency, counterinsurgency, proxy warfare, and fractured governance across urban and rural areas.

Background and origins

Protests in Damascus, Homs, and Daraa Governorate in 2011 echoed regional unrest exemplified by the Tunisian Revolution and Egyptian Revolution of 2011, as activists linked to networks like the Syrian National Council and organisations inspired by the Arab Spring called for political reform from the Assad family's rule dating to Hafez al-Assad. Early security responses by units such as the Syrian Arab Army and the Shabiha militia, alongside defections to formations later organized as the Free Syrian Army, escalated confrontations that intersected with sectarian tensions involving communities like the Alawites, Sunni Islam, Kurds, and Druze. International reactions initially involved actors including the United Nations Security Council, the League of Arab States, European Union, and states such as France, United Kingdom, and United States debating measures like sanctions and arms embargoes.

Course of the conflict

Major phases included the 2012–2013 expansion of fighting around Aleppo, Homs, and Idlib Governorate; the rise and territorial peak of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor; the 2015 intervention by Russia supporting Syrian Arab Army offensives; the 2016–2019 Turkish operations Operation Euphrates Shield, Operation Olive Branch, and Operation Peace Spring against People's Protection Units and Democratic Union Party-linked forces; and the 2019 Turkish offensive into northeastern Syria consequences for Syrian Democratic Forces. Battles such as the Siege of Aleppo (2012–2016), Battle of Raqqa (2017), Battle of Palmyra (2015), and campaigns in Eastern Ghouta showcased use of Syrian Arab Air Force strikes, siege warfare, and urban combat with involvement by militias like Hezbollah and Iranian-backed units including the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps advisers. Diplomatic efforts, including peace talks in Geneva and the Astana talks mediated by Russia, Turkey, and Iran, ran parallel to ceasefire attempts like UN Security Council Resolution 2254 proposals.

Belligerents and armed groups

State and pro-government forces included the Syrian Arab Army, National Defence Forces (Syria), and allied foreign entities like Russian Armed Forces, Hezbollah, and Iranian-aligned militias such as Liwa Fatemiyoun. Opposition and rebel coalitions featured the Free Syrian Army, Syrian National Coalition, Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham, and Islamist groups such as Ahrar al-Sham. Kurdish-led formations included the Syrian Democratic Forces, People's Protection Units, and political bodies like the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria. Jihadist factions such as Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and affiliates, alongside transnational networks including Al-Qaeda, influenced regional battlefields and international counterterrorism responses by the United States Armed Forces. Regional states backing different sides included Turkey, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates, while international coalitions conducted operations such as the International Coalition against ISIL.

Humanitarian impact and civilian casualties

The conflict produced mass displacement with millions registered as refugees in Lebanon, Turkey, and Jordan and internally displaced persons concentrated in Idlib Governorate and Rukban Camp. Reported civilian casualties resulted from sieges, chemical attacks like the alleged Ghouta chemical attack (2013), barrel bombing campaigns, and targeted strikes documented by organisations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International. Health crises affected facilities including Aleppo University Hospital and Al-Qamishli Hospital, while humanitarian access was constrained by contested crossings overseen by actors like the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs and negotiations involving the UN Security Council. Crisis responses involved agencies such as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, International Committee of the Red Cross, and non-governmental relief groups operating in besieged areas.

International involvement and diplomacy

Major diplomatic tracks included the Geneva peace process and the Astana talks, with roles for United Nations, Russia, Turkey, and Iran in ceasefire arrangements and deconfliction. Military interventions ranged from Russian air campaigns supporting Syrian Arab Army operations to US-led strikes targeting Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and chemical weapons-related responses by the United States Armed Forces, United Kingdom, and France. Turkey conducted cross-border operations against Kurdish forces and hosted opposition elements, while Israel conducted strikes against Iranian-linked assets and Hezbollah positions. Sanctions and legal measures were imposed by entities such as the European Union and the United States Department of the Treasury, and international investigations into alleged war crimes involved mechanisms like the International, Impartial and Independent Mechanism.

Territorial control and governance

Territorial fragmentation produced zones controlled by the Syrian Arab Republic centered on Damascus and Latakia Governorate, rebel-held pockets in Idlib Governorate under coalitions like Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham, Kurdish-administered areas comprising the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, and remaining Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant remnants in Syria–Iraq border region. Local governance emerged via bodies including the Syrian Interim Government, civil councils in Aleppo and Raqqa, and administrative councils in Rojava implementing policies influenced by leaders like Abdullah Öcalan and organisations such as the Democratic Union Party. Reconstruction initiatives faced competition among actors including Russia, Iran, and international financial institutions.

Aftermath, reconstruction, and accountability

Post-conflict challenges include rebuilding infrastructure in cities like Aleppo, addressing war crimes allegations in venues such as the International Criminal Court debate and domestic trials, reintegrating former combatants from groups like Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, and resolving refugee returns involving host states Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan. Reconstruction funding and reconstruction contracts have become instruments of influence for states like Russia and Iran while sanctions regimes maintained by the United States and European Union affect economic recovery. Transitional justice initiatives considered by the United Nations and civil society organisations such as Syrian Network for Human Rights confront competing narratives over accountability and political settlement prospects.

Category:Conflicts in Syria