Sonnō jōi
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| Sonnō jōi | |
|---|---|
| Name | Sonnō jōi |
| Native name | 尊王攘夷 |
| Period | Bakumatsu |
| Ideology | Imperial loyalism, anti-foreignism |
| Location | Japan |
Sonnō jōi was a political slogan and movement in late Tokugawa Japan advocating reverence for the Emperor and expulsion of foreigners. Emerging during the Bakumatsu era, it became a rallying cry linking figures such as Tokugawa Yoshinobu, Emperor Kōmei, Saigō Takamori, and Katsura Kogorō with events including the Convention of Kanagawa, Harris Treaty, and the Ansei Purge. Sonnō jōi influenced domains like Satsuma Domain, Chōshū Domain, and Tosa Domain, and intersected with institutions such as the Tokugawa shogunate and the Meiji oligarchy.
Origins and ideology
Sonnō jōi arose from Bakumatsu debates influenced by the arrival of Commodore Matthew C. Perry, the signing of the Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States–Japan) and reactions in Kyoto, Edo, and major ports like Nagasaki and Hakodate. Intellectual currents from figures such as Motoori Norinaga, Kamo no Mabuchi, and the kokugaku movement blended with military writings by Yamaga Sokō and Confucian critiques associated with Yoshida Shōin and Aizawa Seishisai, producing slogans that emphasized loyalty to Emperor Go-Mizunoo's imperial institution and rejection of Western intrusion symbolized by the United States and United Kingdom. The ideology combined restorationist claims about the legitimacy of the imperial court with anti-foreign policies echoing contemporary incidents like the Bombardment of Kagoshima and the Anglo-Satsuma War.
Historical development and key events
Sonnō jōi gained traction after the Perry Expedition (1853–1854), the Treaty of Kanagawa, and the 1858 Ansei Treaties, provoking uprisings and political violence such as the Ikedaya Incident, the Tairō Ii Naosuke-led Ansei Purge, and assassination attempts on negotiators linked to the Bakufu. Domains aligned with the slogan—most notably Chōshū Domain and Satsuma Domain—clashed with shogunate forces in engagements like the Bombardment of Shimonoseki and internal confrontations including the Kinmon Incident. International reactions involved interventions by United States Navy squadrons, the Royal Navy, and French forces under figures connected to the Second French Empire, which in turn influenced samurai leaders such as Ōkubo Toshimichi, Itō Hirobumi, and Yamagata Aritomo.
Major proponents and factions
Prominent adherents included samurai and court nobles like Kōchi Takayoshi (Sakamoto Ryōma), Nakaoka Shintarō, Hashimoto Sanai, Takayoshi Kōchi, Kido Takayoshi, and activists from Mito Domain and Tosa Domain. Factions ranged from radical assassins in Sonno joi-inspired cells—responsible for killings like the Assassination of Ii Naosuke—to moderate reformers who negotiated alliances culminating in the Satchō Alliance. The movement also intersected with religious figures and intellectuals including Echigo Shōin-inspired circles and scholars around the Kansai and Kyoto courts.
Role in the Meiji Restoration
Sonnō jōi provided ideological justification for coalition-building that toppled the Tokugawa shogunate and enabled the Meiji Restoration. Leaders from Satsuma Domain and Chōshū Domain who once invoked the slogan later formed the core of the Meiji oligarchy, orchestrating events such as the Boshin War and the seizure of power in 1868. Key actors like Saigō Takamori, Ōkubo Toshimichi, Katsu Kaishū, and Yoshida Shōin-connected activists adapted Sonnō jōi rhetoric to legitimize reforms including centralization, the abolition of the han system, and the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution.
Domestic and foreign impacts
Domestically, Sonnō jōi's pressure accelerated the dismantling of Tokugawa institutions and the modernization of armed forces, contributing to reforms such as conscription influenced by observers of the Prussian Army and French Third Republic military models. The anti-foreign aspect provoked clashes with Western powers—illustrated by the Bombardment of Shimonoseki and interventions by the United States Navy and Royal Navy—which exposed Japan to unequal treaties and foreign extraterritoriality. Economically and infrastructurally, the movement indirectly led to adoption of technologies from Great Britain, France, and Netherlands as the Meiji state sought to end semi-colonial pressures and renegotiate treaties at conferences involving diplomats from United States, United Kingdom, and France.
Legacy and historiography
Historians debate Sonnō jōi's role as either a coherent nationalist doctrine or a catchphrase appropriated by disparate actors; scholarship ranges from works focusing on activists like Sakamoto Ryōma and Saigō Takamori to structural analyses emphasizing domains such as Satsuma and Chōshū. In modern Japanese memory, the slogan has been invoked in political discourse around Taisho Democracy and postwar conservative movements linked to figures like Yukio Ozaki and institutions such as Keio University and Tokyo Imperial University (University of Tokyo). Internationally, comparisons link Sonnō jōi to contemporaneous movements including Taiping Rebellion-era anti-foreignism in China and restorationist politics in Korea during the Joseon period. Contemporary historiography employs archival sources from the Tokugawa bakufu and Meiji ministries to reassess the interplay between ideology, violence, and state formation.