Siege of Rome (1870)
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| Siege of Rome (1870) | |
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| Conflict | Siege of Rome (1870) |
| Partof | Unification of Italy |
| Date | 20 September – 2 October 1870 |
| Place | Rome, Papal States |
| Result | Capture of Rome; end of temporal power of the Pope; Kingdom of Italy control of Rome |
| Combatant1 | Kingdom of Italy |
| Combatant2 | Papal States |
| Commander1 | Victor Emmanuel II, Luigi Cadorna, Raffaele Cadorna |
| Commander2 | Pope Pius IX, Guglielmo de Saliceto, Ludovico Altieri |
| Strength1 | ~60,000 Regio Esercito |
| Strength2 | ~12,000 Papal Zouaves, Swiss Guard (Papal) volunteers |
| Casualties1 | ~300 killed and wounded |
| Casualties2 | ~49 killed, ~133 wounded |
Siege of Rome (1870) was the final military action that ended the temporal rule of the Pope and completed the territorial unification of the Italian Peninsula under the Kingdom of Italy. In a five-week crisis that combined military operations, diplomatic maneuvering, and international attention focused on Rome and the Papal States, Italian forces breached the Aurelian Walls and took the city on 20–21 September 1870, culminating in the formal annexation in October. The event transformed relations among the Italian monarchy, the Catholic Church, and European powers such as the French Empire, the United Kingdom, and the German Empire.
Background
By the 1860s the Risorgimento movement had reduced the territorial extent of the Papal States to the city of Rome and surrounding province after campaigns by the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and the Second Italian War of Independence. The Second French Empire under Napoleon III had maintained a garrison in Rome since 1849 to safeguard Pius IX and the Papal temporal domain, while Italian leaders including Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Giuseppe Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuel II sought to make Rome the capital of a unified Italy. The defeat of Napoleon III at the Battle of Sedan (1870) and the proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles changed the balance of power that had protected the Holy See.
Prelude and diplomatic context
Following the collapse of the Second French Empire in the Franco-Prussian War, the French Army of the Rhine withdrew from Rome in August 1870, leaving the Papal States isolated. Italian prime minister Luigi Federico Menabrea and military leader Raffaele Cadorna debated action while envoys from the United Kingdom, Austria-Hungary, Prussia, and the Russian Empire watched closely. The September Convention (1864) and previous agreements such as the Convention of May 1867 had framed relations between Rome and foreign capitals, but the changed European landscape—shaped by figures like Otto von Bismarck, Adolphe Thiers, and Baron de Rothschild—created an opening for the Kingdom of Italy to press its claim. Papal diplomat Giuseppe Mantellini and cardinal advisers negotiated with representatives of France and the Holy See to seek protection, but international guarantees did not materialize.
Military forces and fortifications
Italian forces comprised units of the Regio Esercito organized into corps and divisions under commanders including Raffaele Cadorna and staff officers trained after reforms influenced by experiences in the Crimean War and the Wars of Italian Unification. The Papal States fielded irregulars, the Papal Zouaves—volunteer corps drawn from across Europe—some professional Swiss units often referred to as the Swiss Guard (Papal), and urban militia commanded by Papal generals such as Guglielmo de Saliceto. Rome’s defenses rested on the Aurelian Walls, a ring of 3rd-century fortifications augmented in the 19th century with forts, bastions, and artillery emplacements at gates like the Porta Pia, Porta San Paolo, and Porta San Giovanni. Artillery technology—rifled guns and modern siege mortars—favored attackers who could concentrate fire on fixed defensive points.
The siege and capture of Rome
On 11 September 1870 Italian corps concentrated near Rome and issued an ultimatum demanding entry to occupy the city peacefully; the Papal States refused, citing sovereignty and appeals to European public opinion and the protection allegedly owed by states like France. On 20 September Italian troops began operations against the gates after reconnaissance targeted weak points in the Aurelian Walls. After bombardment by 87 mm Krupp and other rifled guns, Italian engineers assaulted the Porta Pia sector. A breach was opened on 20–21 September; units including Bersaglieri and line infantry entered following a short artillery preparation. Pope Pius IX ordered limited resistance, and negotiations mediated by neutral clergy and diplomats occurred as soldiers from the Italian monarchy and Papal Zouaves exchanged fire. Fighting in the streets and around the Lateran and Vatican precincts was relatively localized; by 2 October military operations ceased and Rome capitulated. The outcome was declared by Raffaele Cadorna and ratified by the Italian government led by men such as Bettino Ricasoli and Agostino Depretis.
Casualties and immediate aftermath
Casualties were modest compared with other 19th-century sieges: Italian losses numbered in the low hundreds, Papal forces suffered dozens killed and wounded, and civilian casualties were limited amid evacuations around the Vatican and hospitals such as Ospedale Santo Spirito. After the capture, Italian authorities established martial administration, disarmed Papal units, and interned foreign volunteers; political prisoners from earlier uprisings were released or processed under the law. International reaction ranged from congratulations by the Kingdom of Prussia and indifference by Great Britain to protest from Catholic constituencies in France and Austria, while figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini and Garibaldi interpreted the event within competing nationalist narratives.
Incorporation into the Kingdom of Italy
On 2 October 1870 a plebiscite in the annexed province approved union with the Kingdom of Italy, and on 20 September parliamentary and royal actions soon formalized transfer of sovereignty; Victor Emmanuel II entered Rome and later moved the capital from Florence to Rome. The new status of Rome prompted legal and administrative integration of institutions including the Municipality of Rome, the Italian Parliament, and national ministries. The Roman Question—the dispute over Papal temporal power—remained unresolved until the Lateran Treaty of 1929, which created the State of Vatican City and defined relations between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy.
Legacy and cultural impact
The capture of Rome resonated across European politics, Catholic opinion, and Italian culture: it inspired patriotic art and literature by figures like Giosuè Carducci and influenced composers and painters who engaged with themes of nationalism and faith. The event shaped Catholic political mobilization, contributing to the development of the Catholic Party and affecting papal policies under Pius IX and his successors. Commemorations, monuments such as the Vittoriano (Altar of the Fatherland), and debates in Italian historiography—addressed by scholars referencing archives in the Archivio di Stato di Roma and Vatican documents—ensured the siege’s central place in narratives of the Risorgimento. The transition also affected international law discussions on sovereignty, exemplified in diplomatic correspondence preserved in collections related to Bismarck, Napoleon III, and Lord Palmerston.
Category:Sieges Category:History of Rome Category:Italian unification