Second Opium War

Second Opium War
Émile Bayard · Public domain · source
Conflict	Second Opium War
Date	1856–1860
Place	China: Pearl River Delta, Hai River, Canton, Beijing region
Result	Anglo-French victory; Treaties of Tianjin and Beijing; increased foreign concessions and legal privileges
Combatant1	United Kingdom, France, United States (diplomatic presence), Russia (diplomatic role)
Combatant2	Qing dynasty, Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (indirectly)
Commander1	James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin, Lord Elgin, Frédéric Lyon, Sir Michael Seymour, 1st Baronet, Charles van Straubenzee
Commander2	Yishan (Qing general), Qishan, Sushun, Prince Gong
Strength1	British and French expeditionary forces; naval squadrons
Strength2	Qing Bannermen, regional Green Standard Army, local militias
Casualties1	thousands (killed, wounded, disease)
Casualties2	tens of thousands (killed, wounded, disease), civilian casualties

Second Opium War was an armed conflict between the United Kingdom and France against the Qing dynasty from 1856 to 1860, with broader diplomatic involvement by United States and Russia. It followed unresolved issues from the First Opium War and the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, culminating in military operations in the Pearl River Delta, the Hai River approach to Beijing, and the sacking of the Old Summer Palace. The conflict produced the Treaties of Tianjin and the Convention of Peking, reshaping foreign presence in China and accelerating internal crises such as the Taiping Rebellion.

Background

After the First Opium War, the Treaty of Nanking established Hong Kong cession and five treaty ports, but disputes persisted over treaty interpretation, maritime rights, and consular access. The 1850s saw overlapping crises: the Taiping Rebellion challenged Qing authority, the Arrow incident produced diplomatic friction, and Western missions such as Robert Morrison’s legacies and the activities of Hudson Taylor exemplified missionary expansion. Western powers like the United Kingdom and France sought expanded treaty port privileges, extraterritoriality under the Consular Courts precedent from Treaty of Nanking, and fixed tariffs under the Treaty of Wanghia and Treaty of Tientsin negotiations. Qing court politics involved figures such as Prince Gong, Sushun, and officials embroiled in factional responses to foreign demands.

Causes and Immediate Prelude

Immediate causes included the 1856 seizure of the lorcha "Arrow" by Canton authorities, implicating issues of extraterritoriality and the 1844 Treaty of Wanghia rights claimed by the United Kingdom. The 1857 execution of French missionary Auguste Chapdelaine in Guangxi provided a casus belli for France, while British complaints over customs inspections and port access intensified. Diplomatic incidents involved envoys such as Harry Parkes and French representatives, and culminated with joint Anglo-French decision-making influenced by figures like Lord Elgin and Napoleon III. The Qing response under officials like Yishan (Qing general) and Qishan failed to resolve tensions, leading to declared hostilities and mobilization of Royal Navy squadrons and French Navy forces.

Major Campaigns and Battles

Campaigns began with operations in the Pearl River Delta, notably the capture of Canton (Guangzhou) after assaults on fortifications along the river and bombardments using ships from squadrons commanded by Sir Michael Seymour, 1st Baronet. Anglo-French forces then moved north to the Bohai and Hai River approaches, engaging Qing fortifications at the Taku Forts during battles in 1858 and 1859; the 1859 failure at Taku led to renewed preparations. In 1860 a combined expedition under Lord Elgin and French commanders, including Frédéric Lyon, succeeded in storming the Taku Forts and advancing via the Peiho (Hai River) to the outskirts of Beijing. Notable engagements include the assault on the Taku Forts, the march on Dagu, and the looting and destruction of the Yuanmingyuan (Old Summer Palace) after diplomatic negotiations collapsed. Military operations involved coordination between naval bombardment, amphibious landings, and riverine logistics drawing on lessons from the Crimean War and contemporary expeditionary warfare.

Diplomatic Negotiations and Treaties

Diplomacy ran in parallel with campaigns. The 1858 Treaties of Tianjin (Tientsin) were signed after initial successes, granting new treaty ports, freedom of movement for foreign envoys to Beijing, legalized missionary activity, and indemnities. Qing hesitance to ratify led to renewed conflict; the subsequent 1860 Convention of Peking (Peking) ratified Tianjin provisions and added cessions and concessions, including the opening of additional ports and expansion of the foreign legation system in Beijing. Delegations involved negotiators such as Lord Elgin and Qing plenipotentiaries like Qishan. Russia acted as mediator in some instances, and the United States and other powers monitored the settlements established by the Anglo-French alliance.

Impact on China and the Qing Dynasty

The war deepened Qing fiscal and political crises by imposing heavy indemnities, territorial concessions, and greater foreign legal privileges that eroded Qing sovereignty in treaty ports. The destruction of the Yuanmingyuan was a psychological and cultural blow, galvanizing anti-foreign sentiment and complicating internal legitimacy for the Qing court under figures such as Prince Gong. Disruptions aggravated the Taiping Rebellion and other uprisings, while reforms and self-strengthening efforts later in the century—linked to officials like Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang—were shaped by the humiliation and military lessons of 1856–1860. The war accelerated foreign economic penetration by firms like Jardine, Matheson & Co. and influenced subsequent treaties including the Treaty of Peking arrangements concerning tariffs and missionary protections.

International Consequences and Legacy

Internationally, the war exemplified mid-19th century imperial power projection by the United Kingdom and France and influenced contemporary doctrines of intervention and gunboat diplomacy linked to naval figures and policies across Europe and North America. The conflict affected Russo-British and Anglo-French relations in Asia, contributed to the expansion of extraterritorial legal regimes, and set precedents for later unequal treaties affecting Korea and Vietnam. Cultural memory of events such as the looting of the Old Summer Palace continues to feature in modern China–Europe relations and debates over repatriation of cultural property. The war's long-term legacy includes accelerated modernization initiatives within China and the entrenchment of foreign spheres of influence that shaped East Asian geopolitics into the 20th century.

Category:Wars involving China Category:Wars involving the United Kingdom Category:Wars involving France Category:1856 Category:1860