Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)

Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)
Juris Tiltins · Public domain · source
Name	Second Constitutional Era
Native name	II. Meşrutiyet
Start	1908
End	1918
Location	Ottoman Empire
Key figures	Mehmed V, Abdul Hamid II, Enver Pasha, Talat Pasha, CUP, Halil Bey (Halil Menteşe), Said Halim Pasha, Kâmil Pasha, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Prince Sabahaddin

Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire) was the period from the restoration of the 1876 constitution in 1908 until the end of World War I in 1918, marked by intense political pluralism, competing nationalist movements, military interventions, and imperial collapse. It encompassed the re-emergence of party politics centered on the Committee of Union and Progress, constitutional debates involving the Ottoman Parliament (1908–1914), social reforms affecting Young Turks, Armenian Revolutionary Federation, and diverse communities across the Balkans, Anatolia, and the Arab provinces. The era's trajectory was shaped by interactions between Ottoman elites, European powers such as United Kingdom, Germany, France, Russia, and contested frontiers from the Italo-Turkish War to the Gallipoli campaign.

Background and Prelude

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the Ottoman Empire beset by territorial losses after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), diplomatic arbitration at the Congress of Berlin (1878), and internal dissent exemplified by the Hamidian Era under Abdul Hamid II. Reformist currents incubated within exile networks in Paris, Salonika, and Cairo where figures from the Young Ottomans to the Young Turks debated constitutionalism alongside actors like Ahmed Rıza, Mehmed Talat, and Said Halim Pasha. Military modernization programs tied to the German–Ottoman relations and missions such as those led by Otto Liman von Sanders created new officer cadres, while crises like the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) and the Balkan Wars exposed deficiencies that enabled political upheaval.

Young Turk Revolution and Restoration of the Constitution

The 1908 Young Turk Revolution staged by the Committee of Union and Progress forced Abdul Hamid II to reinstate the 1876 constitution and reconvene the General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire. Key episodes included the mobilization in Salonika, mutinies by elements of the Third Army, and mass demonstrations that involved activists such as İsmail Enver, Ahmed Niyazi Bey, and civilian leaders like Prince Sabahaddin. The restored constitutional order produced the 1908 elections and the reopening of the Meclis-i Mebusan, setting off a contest among the Committee of Union and Progress, the Freedom and Accord Party (Liberal Entente), and ethnic-nationalist parties including the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs, and Greek parliamentary groups.

Political Institutions and Parties

Parliamentary life during the era centered on the Meclis-i Mebusan and the Senate of the Ottoman Empire under Mehmed V as sultan. The Committee of Union and Progress evolved from a reformist secret society into a dominant political machine alongside figures like Enver Pasha, Talat Pasha, and Cemal Pasha. Opposition came from the Freedom and Accord Party, conservative notables such as Kâmil Pasha, and ethnic delegations representing Armenians, Arabs, Albanians, and Greeks. Electoral manipulation, military influence, and emergency statutes shaped governance, while legal debates engaged institutions like the Ottoman legal system and administrative reforms pursued by ministers including Mahmud Shevket Pasha.

Reforms and Social Changes

Reform initiatives touched taxation, conscription, infrastructure projects like the Hejaz Railway, and modernization of the Ottoman educational system influenced by European advisers. Urban growth in Istanbul, Salonika, and Aleppo coincided with the rise of newspapers such as Tanin, İkdam, and Sabah, and cultural movements linked to writers like Halide Edip Adıvar and intellectuals including Ziya Gökalp. Nationalist movements among Armenians, Arabs, Kurds, and Balkan peoples accelerated, while social tensions escalated over land, labor, and sectarian incidents exemplified by the 1909 Adana massacre and Armenian–Ottoman frictions. Women's associations and reformist circles began asserting public roles, intersecting with debates led by figures like Nigar Hanım.

Foreign Policy, Wars, and Crises

The Second Constitutional Era was defined by successive conflicts: the Italo-Turkish War, the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), and entry into World War I alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary. The 1913 Raid on the Sublime Porte consolidated CUP authority after political assassinations and military coups, while theaters such as the Dardanelles campaign, Caucasus Campaign, Mesopotamian campaign, and the Sinai and Palestine Campaign drained resources. Diplomacy involved treaties like the Treaty of London (1913), secret accords with Germany including the Ottoman–German Alliance, and crises with Russia and United Kingdom over the Straits question and colonial competition.

Decline and Suspension of the Constitution

Wartime exigencies and CUP centralization eroded constitutional norms; emergency measures, martial law, and population policies intensified after 1914. The 1915–1917 period witnessed harsh counterinsurgency campaigns and population transfers affecting Armenians and other communities, while the 1918 Armistice of Mudros terminated Ottoman participation in World War I. The collapse of imperial authority culminated in the occupation of Istanbul by Allied Powers, the trial and exile of CUP leaders like Talat Pasha and Enver Pasha, and the rise of the Turkish National Movement under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk that contested postwar settlements such as the Treaty of Sèvres.

Legacy and Historical Assessment

Historians assess the era as a transformative but contested phase that mixed constitutional aspirations with authoritarian, nationalist, and imperial dissolution dynamics. Interpretations range from emphasis on modernization and legal pluralism to critiques focusing on wartime policies, ethnic violence, and the role of personalities like Abdul Hamid II, Enver Pasha, and Talat Pasha. The Second Constitutional Era's institutions influenced successor states and legal frameworks embodied in the Republic of Turkey and mandates under the League of Nations such as French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon and the British Mandate for Palestine. Scholarly debates continue concerning responsibility for wartime atrocities, the effectiveness of reformist programs, and the era's contribution to 20th‑century nationalisms across the former Ottoman territories.

Category:Ottoman Empire