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| Republic of Burma | |
|---|---|
| Name | Republic of Burma |
| Native name | နိုင်ငံတော် ဗမာနိုင်ငံ |
| Capital | Naypyidaw |
| Largest city | Yangon |
| Official languages | Burmese |
| Ethnic groups | Bamar, Shan, Karen, Rakhine, Mon, Kachin, Chin |
| Government | Presidential republic |
| Area km2 | 676578 |
| Population estimate | ~55,000,000 |
| Currency | kyat |
| Independence | 4 January 1948 |
Republic of Burma is a Southeast Asian state on the Bay of Bengal, long shaped by indigenous kingdoms, colonial rule, wartime occupation, and postwar politics. Its modern territorial configuration and political institutions trace to the legacies of the Konbaung dynasty, the British Empire, World War II campaigns, and post-independence constitutions influenced by regional actors and Cold War dynamics. The country encompasses diverse ethnic groups, languages, religions, and a complex interaction of inland highlands, riverine plains, and coastal zones.
Burma's premodern history centers on polities such as the Pagan Empire, the Toungoo dynasty, and the Konbaung dynasty, which engaged with neighboring states including Ayutthaya Kingdom, Qing dynasty, and Kingdom of Laos. The First Anglo-Burmese War, Second Anglo-Burmese War, and Third Anglo-Burmese War led to incremental British Raj annexation and incorporation into British India and later the British Empire. During World War II, campaigns like the Burma Campaign involved forces from the British Indian Army, Imperial Japan, the Chinese Expeditionary Force, and the United States Army Air Forces, with figures such as Aung San emerging. Postwar negotiations produced the Panglong Agreement and the 1947 constitution, culminating in independence on 4 January 1948 under leaders from the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League. Coups in 1962 and 1988 brought military rule by the Tatmadaw and entities such as the State Law and Order Restoration Council and the State Peace and Development Council. The 1990 general election won by the National League for Democracy was followed by detention of leaders including Aung San Suu Kyi; later reforms in the 2010s involved the Union Solidarity and Development Party and a nominally civilian constitution drafted in 2008. Conflicts with insurgent groups like the Kachin Independence Army, Karen National Union, and Arakan Army shaped ongoing ceasefires and peace talks involving mediators such as the United Nations and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.
Political structures derive from the 2008 constitution, establishing institutions including a presidency, a bicameral legislature composed of the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, the Amyotha Hluttaw, and the Pyithu Hluttaw, and a judiciary modeled in part on colonial-era codes. Power dynamics frequently involve the Tatmadaw, which retains reserved parliamentary seats and control over ministries such as defense and home affairs. Major political parties have included the National League for Democracy, the Union Solidarity and Development Party, and ethnic-based parties like the Shan Nationalities League for Democracy. International relations have involved engagements with China, India, Thailand, Japan, United States, European Union, and organizations including the United Nations Security Council discussions and ASEAN diplomacy. Electoral events such as the 1990, 2010, and 2015 elections and the 2021 coup d'état have influenced sanctions regimes by the United States Department of the Treasury, the European External Action Service, and responses from regional actors like Myanmar Monitoring Group affiliates and International Court of Justice filings concerning alleged violations.
Burma occupies a strategic position between South Asia and Southeast Asia, with major rivers including the Irrawaddy River, the Salween River, and the Chindwin River creating fertile deltas and inland transport corridors. Physiographic regions range from the Shan Plateau and the Himalayan foothills in the north near Kachin State to the Arakan Mountains along the western coast facing the Bay of Bengal. Ecosystems host species documented in works by WWF, IUCN Red List entries, and researchers from institutions like the Smithsonian Institution; habitats include mangroves in the Ayeyarwady Delta and evergreen forests in the Tanintharyi Region. Environmental challenges involve deforestation linked to logging firms, hydropower projects on the Salween and Irrawaddy involving companies from China Three Gorges Corporation and transboundary water concerns with Bangladesh, and cyclones such as Cyclone Nargis that drew international humanitarian responses from ICRC and UNICEF.
Economic activity spans agriculture in the Irrawaddy Delta, resource extraction in states like Kachin and Rakhine, and urban commerce in Yangon and Mandalay. Key exports historically included rice, teak, natural gas fields like Yadana gas field, gemstones such as jade and rubies from Mogok, and fisheries exploited in the Bay of Bengal. Sanctions and trade regimes involving the United States, the European Union, and Japan have affected foreign direct investment, while Chinese infrastructure projects under Belt and Road Initiative frameworks and investments by Thai and Indian firms have reshaped transport corridors including the Kyaukpyu port proposals. Monetary policy is conducted by the Central Bank of Myanmar which issues the kyat; fiscal reforms, banking sector development, and international lending from institutions like the Asian Development Bank and World Bank have been intermittent.
Population distribution centers in the lowland basins around Yangon, Mandalay, and the Irrawaddy Delta, with ethnic majorities such as the Bamar and significant minorities including the Shan people, Karen people, Rakhine people, Kachin people, Chin people, and Mon people. Religious traditions include Buddhism predominant in the Bamar heartland, with communities of Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism among ethnic minorities and migrant groups. Social issues have involved humanitarian concerns in Rakhine State linked to displacement of the Rohingya and determinations by bodies like the UN Human Rights Council and investigations by the International Criminal Court. Education systems reference institutions such as the University of Yangon, University of Mandalay, and technical colleges influenced by historical legacies of the British colonial education system and reforms involving UNESCO assistance.
Cultural life reflects Buddhist traditions centered on pagodas such as the Shwedagon Pagoda and festivals like Thingyan and Thadingyut, alongside performing arts including the Burmese classical dance and music using instruments like the saung-gauk. Literary contributions include classical chronicles like the Glass Palace Chronicle and modern authors engaged with publishers in Rangoon and beyond. Visual arts and crafts include lacquerware from Bagan, textile weaving traditions among the Shan and Intha, and archaeological sites such as Bagan and Mrauk-U attracting scholars from the British Museum and the Louvre. Media outlets have included state broadcasters such as Myanmar Radio and private newspapers that have faced regulation under various administrations, with civil society groups like Human Rights Watch documenting press freedom concerns.
The Tatmadaw comprises land, naval, and air components with bases and commands across regions including Naypyidaw and strategic fronts near Kachin and Rakhine. Internal security operations have engaged with ethnic armed organizations such as the United Wa State Army and the Karen National Liberation Army in protracted conflicts involving ceasefire negotiations mediated by the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement processes. Cross-border incidents have involved neighboring militaries from China and India in frontier management, while international arms procurement has included equipment historically sourced from the Soviet Union, China, and regional suppliers. Security policy intersects with counterinsurgency doctrines, humanitarian concerns raised by Amnesty International, and peacebuilding efforts supported by the UN Special Rapporteur mandates.
Category:Countries in Southeast Asia