Rearmament (Nazi Germany)
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| Rearmament (Nazi Germany) | |
|---|---|
| Name | Rearmament (Nazi Germany) |
| Caption | Wehrmacht parade, 1937 |
| Date | 1933–1939 |
| Location | Germany, Saar, Rhineland |
| Outcome | Establishment of Wehrmacht, violation of Treaty of Versailles, altered balance pre-World War II |
Rearmament (Nazi Germany) was the systematic reconstitution of Germany's armed forces, armaments industry, and strategic posture under the Nazi Party leadership between 1933 and 1939. It reversed the military restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles through covert programs, legal reforms, industrial planning, and overt expansion that transformed the Wehrmacht into a central instrument of Adolf Hitler's foreign policy. The program reshaped European diplomacy, influenced the course of Spanish Civil War, and precipitated the outbreak of World War II.
Background and Treaty Constraints
The post-World War I settlement imposed by the Paris Peace Conference and enshrined in the Treaty of Versailles limited the Reichswehr to 100,000 men, prohibited an air force, restricted the navy tonnage, and banned tanks and heavy artillery. These constraints intersected with the political turbulence of the Weimar Republic and the economic dislocations of the Great Depression, while diplomatic instruments like the League of Nations and agreements such as the Locarno Treaties sought to stabilize postwar Europe. German nationalist movements, veterans' associations like the Stahlhelm, and conservative elites pressed for revision of the Versailles settlement alongside radical factions including the Nazi Party and organizations connected to Ernst Röhm and the SA.
Political and Ideological Motivations
Rearmament was driven by ideological currents in the National Socialist German Workers' Party that linked militarization to concepts of Lebensraum, racial doctrine promoted by Alfred Rosenberg, and the charismatic leadership model of Adolf Hitler. Key figures such as Hermann Göring, Werner von Blomberg, Walther von Brauchitsch, and industrial partners like Fritz Thyssen and firms including Krupp, Daimler-Benz, and Rheinmetall integrated nationalist ideology with strategic designs. The project appealed to nationalist conservatives in the Reichstag and the Prussian State Council, aligned with bureaucrats in the Reich Ministry of Economics under Hjalmar Schacht and later Walther Funk, and leveraged paramilitary networks tied to the SS and SA.
Phases and Key Policies of Rearmament
Early clandestine rearmament relied on secret training programs with the Soviet Union at Kama tank school and covert aviation development through front companies and the Luftwaffe precursor at Lipetsk. The public phase accelerated after Hitler's 1935 announcement ending conscription and unveiling the Luftwaffe, followed by naval expansion including the Z Plan and construction of Bismarck-class capital ships. Policies encompassed the 1933 Four-Year Plan overseen by Hermann Göring, the 1935 reintroduction of compulsory service, procurement directives coordinated by the Reichskriegsministerium, and arms production tied to cartels and conglomerates such as IG Farben and Messerschmitt. Rearmament also entailed legal instruments like the Nuremberg Laws' indirect social consolidation and administrative centralization in bodies like the Reichswerke Hermann Göring.
Economic and Industrial Mobilization
Rearmament transformed industrial policy through state contracts, subsidies, and credit schemes administered by the Reichsbank under Hjalmar Schacht and later financial management by Walther Funk. Massive orders expanded heavy industry: Krupp for artillery and armor; MAN for engines; Siemens for communications; Heinkel and Messerschmitt for aircraft; Blohm & Voss and Howaldtswerke for shipbuilding. Labor mobilization involved the National Labour Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst), coordination with trade unions dissolved and integrated into the German Labour Front, and exploitation of forced labor beginning with prisoners from the Rhineland and later populations in occupied territories. Economic tools included deficit financing, barter agreements like the Autarky-oriented policies, and bilateral deals with states such as the Soviet Union and Italy.
Military Expansion: Army, Navy, and Air Force
The expansion of the Heer combined mechanization, formation of panzer divisions, and doctrine developed by officers including Heinz Guderian, influenced by theories in the OKH and tactical writings of J.F.C. Fuller and B.H. Liddell Hart abroad. The Kriegsmarine reconstruction produced U-boats under commanders like Karl Dönitz and surface vessels planned by naval architects in pursuit of the Z Plan, challenging Royal Navy supremacy. The Luftwaffe under Hermann Göring fielded bombers like the Heinkel He 111 and fighters such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109, proving decisive in interventions like the Spanish Civil War where units including the Condor Legion tested tactics. Organizational changes included the abolition of the Reichswehr and creation of the unified Wehrmacht command structure.
Domestic Social and Propaganda Measures
Propaganda campaigns by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda under Joseph Goebbels framed rearmament as national renewal, using media outlets including Völkischer Beobachter, UFA, and mass spectacles like the 1936 Summer Olympics to normalize militarization. Education reforms in schools and organizations such as the Hitler Youth and League of German Girls inculcated martial values, while cultural production from filmmakers, authors, and artists supportive of the Nazi ideology reinforced acceptance. Persecution of political opponents, Jewish communities under measures from the Nuremberg Laws to the Kristallnacht pogrom, and coordination with institutions like the Gestapo suppressed dissent and redirected labor and resources toward armament goals.
International Reactions and Diplomatic Consequences
Rearmament provoked diplomatic crises and responses: the Stresa Front attempts to check violations, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement that partially legitimized naval expansion, and the remilitarization of the Rhineland that altered strategic calculations in France, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union. Powers oscillated between appeasement policies by leaders such as Neville Chamberlain and contingency planning by figures like Winston Churchill and French premiers including Édouard Daladier. Rearmament influenced alliances and interventions in the Spanish Civil War, informed intelligence efforts by agencies like MI6 and the Abwehr, and culminated in territorial revisions including the Anschluss and the Sudeten Crisis that set the stage for the invasion of Poland.