Plebiscite of Naples

Plebiscite of Naples was the October 1860 popular vote held in the territories of the former Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to ratify annexation by the Kingdom of Sardinia, leading to the formation of the Kingdom of Italy. The plebiscite followed military campaigns led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, diplomatic maneuvers by Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, and the retreat of Bourbon rule under Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies and Francis II of the Two Sicilies. The vote occurred amid the larger context of the Italian unification movement, the decline of the Austrian Empire influence in Italy, and shifting alignments involving France and the United Kingdom.

Background and Political Context

The plebiscite emerged after Garibaldi’s Expedition of the Thousand campaign, which overturned Bourbon control in Sicily and advanced into Naples. Garibaldi’s victories at engagements such as the Battle of Milazzo and the Siege of Palermo undermined the authority of Francis II, prompting negotiations with Cavour and the Piedmontese Kingdom of Sardinia. International actors including Napoleon III of France, the British Cabinet, and representatives from the Prussian government monitored developments alongside envoys from the Holy See and the Ottoman Empire. Conservative dynasties like the Habsburg Monarchy and the ruling houses of Bavaria and Spain weighed interventions against the nationalist momentum manifested by societies such as the Young Italy movement and figures like Mazzini. The diplomatic correspondence between Cavour, Garibaldi, and foreign ministers revealed tensions over military occupation, the status of the Bourbon monarchy, and the legal mechanism for legitimizing territorial transfer via a popular vote.

The 1860 Plebiscite: Organization and Procedures

After Garibaldi ceded conquered territories to Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia through the Convention of Teano arrangements and Cavour’s administration, the Sardinian government organized the plebiscite following precedents set in other annexations such as the Treaty of Turin. Prefects and commissioners from the Piedmontese administration oversaw voter registration in provinces including Campania, Calabria, Basilicata, and Apulia. Electoral notices referenced statutes of the Statuto Albertino and applied administrative forms used in earlier referenda involving Savoy transfers. Voting took place in municipal forums, parish halls linked to Roman Curia records, and military posts where units from the Royal Sardinian Army maintained order. Ballot handling invoked procedures drawn from Sardinian legal practice, with counts supervised by provincial magistrates associated with the Court of Cassation in Turin. Observers included delegates sympathetic to Garibaldi, Piedmontese officials, local notables such as members of the Neapolitan aristocracy, and foreign consuls from capitals like London, Paris, and Vienna.

Voting Results and Immediate Consequences

Official tallies declared overwhelming majorities in favor of annexation to Sardinia across urban centers such as Naples and rural districts in the Mezzogiorno, mirroring earlier plebiscites in Sardinia-Piedmont acquisitions. The rapid promulgation of results enabled the Sardinian Parliament in Turin to authorize extension of the Statuto Albertino and to schedule integration measures for administrative, fiscal, and judicial systems. Military garrisons from the Sardinian army and Garibaldian volunteers maintained public order during proclamations in municipal palaces, while members of the Neapolitan National Guard faced disbandment or assimilation. Celebratory processions invoked symbols of Italian nationalism and figures such as Victor Emmanuel II, whereas Bourbon loyalists, including remnants of the Bourbon navy officers and conservative magistrates, organized petitions and protests calling upon foreign monarchs for intervention.

Legitimacy, Controversies, and International Reaction

Contemporaneous critics from liberal circles like Giuseppe Mazzini and conservative quarters including Bourbon partisans questioned the plebiscite’s legality, alleging irregularities in voter rolls, pressure by occupying troops, and the exclusion of dissenting voices such as clerical factions aligned with the Holy See. International reaction varied: Paris provided cautious recognition influenced by Napoleon III’s Mediterranean policy, London expressed measured acceptance reflecting British interests in stability, and Vienna condemned the outcome as a setback for Habsburg influence. Debates in foreign legislatures, including the French Corps législatif and the British Parliament, focused on diplomatic precedents established by the plebiscite, while émigré newspapers in Geneva and Brussels published critical assessments. Historians and jurists invoked legal instruments such as the Congress of Vienna principles and compared the vote to other contemporary referenda including transfers adjudicated by the Treaty of Paris frameworks.

Aftermath: Annexation into the Kingdom of Italy and Long-term Impact

Following parliamentary ratification, Naples and southern provinces were incorporated into the expanded Kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II, initiating reforms in taxation, conscription, and judiciary modeled on Piedmontese institutions including the Italian Civil Code adaptations. The annexation precipitated social unrest manifested in brigandage movements in the Mezzogiorno, where bands led by figures like Raffaele Garofalo and other insurgents resisted new administrative regimes; the Sardinian government responded with military campaigns directed by generals from the Royal Army of Italy. The absorption influenced European diplomatic alignments ahead of later events such as the Third Italian War of Independence and the capture of Rome in 1870, while internally it reshaped political currents within parties like the Historical Right (Italy) and the Historical Left (Italy). Scholarship on the plebiscite engages archives from Turin, Naples, and Paris and continues to debate issues of legality, popular sovereignty, and the role of military force in state formation.

Category:Italian unification Category:1860 in Italy Category:Referendums