Pick-Sloan Plan
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| Pick-Sloan Plan | |
|---|---|
| Name | Pick-Sloan Plan |
| Country | United States |
| Location | Missouri River basin |
| Date | 1944 |
| Author | Colonel Lewis A. Pick; Major General Lewis A. Pick; William Glenn Sloan |
| Purpose | Flood control, navigation, irrigation, hydroelectric power |
Pick-Sloan Plan The Pick-Sloan Plan was a 1944 United States federal water-resources program that coordinated massive engineering projects on the Missouri River and its tributaries to provide flood control, navigation, irrigation, hydroelectric power, and municipal water supply. The plan emerged from competing proposals by the United States Army Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation and was adopted during the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt amidst wartime and New Deal–era infrastructure priorities. It shaped regional development in the Great Plains, affected numerous Native American communities including the Sioux and Omaha people, and continues to influence contemporary debates over river management, tribal sovereignty, and environmental restoration.
Background and Development
The plan originated in the context of recurring floods on the Missouri River and national initiatives such as the New Deal and programs led by agencies like the Tennessee Valley Authority and the Works Progress Administration. Key figures included Colonel Lewis A. Pick of the United States Army Corps of Engineers and William G. Sloan (William Glenn Sloan) of the United States Bureau of Reclamation, whose dueling proposals were reconciled in the Pick-Sloan compromise under the auspices of the United States Congress and the War Department. Federal legislation such as the Flood Control Act of 1944 and policy influences from the Department of the Interior and the Office of Management and Budget framed the legal and administrative context. Regional stakeholders included governors of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, and Nebraska, as well as river users associated with the Interstate Commerce Commission and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Components and Provisions
The Pick-Sloan Plan combined elements of the Corps' flood-control and navigation emphasis with the Bureau's irrigation and reclamation priorities, creating a multipurpose system of dams, reservoirs, locks, and levees. Provisions allocated resources for hydroelectric generation managed by entities like the Bonneville Power Administration model and authorized construction by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation. The plan included authorization for water storage, channelization, municipal water rights adjudicated through Department of Justice processes, and land acquisition governed by statutes such as the Flood Control Act of 1944. It also provided for mitigation measures involving the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and conservation policies influenced by the Soil Conservation Service.
Implementation and Projects
Major projects stemming from the plan included the creation of large reservoirs and dams such as Garrison Dam, Fort Peck Dam, Oahe Dam, Big Bend Dam, Fort Randall Dam, and Gavins Point Dam. Construction involved engineering firms, labor organized under influences from the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America and the American Federation of Labor, and procurement overseen by agencies like the War Production Board. Hydroelectric facilities tied into regional grids influenced by entities such as NorthWestern Energy and the Western Area Power Administration. Navigation improvements connected to barge traffic used by ports like St. Louis. Reservoirs inundated lands administered under treaties such as the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) and the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), affecting holdings of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe, the Crow Nation, and other federally recognized tribes.
Environmental and Social Impacts
Reservoir creation produced ecological changes affecting species managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and habitats studied by scientists at institutions like Smithsonian Institution and University of Missouri. Alterations to sediment transport changed conditions for fish like those monitored by the Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks and the South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks Department. Social consequences included forced relocation and loss of homelands for tribal communities represented by leaders who engaged with the Bureau of Indian Affairs and litigation in the United States District Court for the District of South Dakota. Cultural heritage sites cataloged by the National Park Service and repositories such as the Library of Congress were impacted. Environmental advocates including organizations like the Sierra Club later critiqued ecological impacts, while conservationists associated with the Audubon Society raised concerns about migratory bird habitat.
Legal and Political Controversies
Legal disputes arose over compensation, treaty rights, and water rights adjudicated in courts including the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit and ultimately the United States Supreme Court in cases invoking doctrines related to Indian reservations and fiduciary obligations of the United States. Political debates involved members of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives, state governors, and tribal councils. Administrative controversies included disagreements between the Department of the Interior and the War Department and policy reviews by commissions such as the National Resources Committee. Legislative responses encompassed later statutes and policy shifts influenced by actors like Senator George A. McGovern and Representative Ben Reifel.
Economic Outcomes and Benefits
The Pick-Sloan projects produced hydroelectric power that bolstered regional industrial centers and agricultural irrigation that expanded production in counties across the Great Plains served by rural electric cooperatives inspired by the Rural Electrification Administration. Navigation improvements reduced transportation costs for commodities flowing to hubs such as Minneapolis–Saint Paul and Kansas City. Flood damage reduction benefited municipalities including Bismarck, North Dakota and Pierre, South Dakota. Economic development attracted businesses and utilities, and federal investments paralleled programs like the Marshall Plan in scale for domestic infrastructure. However, cost-benefit assessments by economists from institutions like the Brookings Institution and the Rand Corporation highlighted uneven distribution of benefits and long-term maintenance liabilities.
Legacy and Evaluation
The Pick-Sloan Plan remains a foundational element of water-resource management in the Missouri River basin, shaping contemporary policy debates involving the Army Corps of Engineers, the Bureau of Reclamation, tribal governments, and environmental organizations. Scholars at universities such as University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Montana State University, and University of South Dakota continue to evaluate its socioecological legacy. Legislative oversight by bodies like the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works and advocacy by groups including Native American Rights Fund have prompted reassessments, mitigation programs, and settlements such as those negotiated with tribal plaintiffs. The plan is studied alongside other major projects like the Hoover Dam and the Grand Coulee Dam as a case study in multipurpose water development, federal-tribal relations, and environmental trade-offs.