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| Peru campaign (Spanish American wars of independence) | |
|---|---|
| Conflict | Peru campaign (Spanish American wars of independence) |
| Partof | Spanish American wars of independence |
| Date | 1810s–1824 |
| Place | Viceroyalty of Peru, Upper Peru, Chile, New Granada |
| Result | Patriot victory; collapse of Viceroyalty of Peru |
| Combatant1 | Patriot forces of United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Chile, Gran Colombia, Peru |
| Combatant2 | Spanish Empire; Royalist forces |
| Commander1 | José de San Martín, Simón Bolívar, Bernardo O'Higgins, Antonio José de Sucre, César Vallejo |
| Commander2 | José de la Serna, Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela, Fernando VII, Pedro Antonio Olañeta |
| Strength1 | variable |
| Strength2 | variable |
Peru campaign (Spanish American wars of independence) The Peru campaign of the Spanish American wars of independence was the climactic series of military and political operations (1810s–1824) that led to the end of Spanish rule in the Viceroyalty of Peru and the emergence of the Republic of Peru and other Andean republics. Combining expeditionary forces from the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Chile, and Gran Colombia, the campaign intertwined the strategies of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar with the resistance of Spanish Royalist commanders such as José de la Serna and Pedro Antonio Olañeta.
Peru's role in the Spanish Empire made it the principal Royalist bastion after independence movements erupted in Buenos Aires, Caracas, Bogotá, and Santiago. Following the May Revolution and campaigns of the Army of the North (United Provinces), Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata efforts reached Upper Peru and the Battle of Suipacha, while the Independence of Chile under Bernardo O'Higgins and the Expedition of the Army of the Andes organized by José de San Martín targeted Lima as the imperial capital. Concurrently, the Admiral Cochrane-led blockade of Callao and Chilean Navy operations secured maritime approaches, and diplomatic efforts involving the Congress of Tucumán and the Anglo-Spanish relations shaped external support.
Royalist forces in Peru were commanded by viceroys Joaquín de la Pezuela and later José de la Serna, with generals like Pedro Antonio Olañeta, Juan Antonio Álvarez de Arenales (Royalist turncoat episodes), and garrisons centered at Cusco, Lima, Arequipa, and the fortress of Real Felipe (Callao). Patriot coalitions combined the military leadership of José de San Martín, the naval leadership of Thomas Cochrane, and later the political-military leadership of Simón Bolívar and his lieutenant Antonio José de Sucre. Units included veterans from the Army of the Andes, contingents from the Liberating Expedition of Peru (1820), volunteers from Chile, and republican elements from New Granada and Venezuela. Foreign officers such as James Rooke and naval crews from British Royal Navy service participated alongside local leaders like José de la Riva-Agüero and Mateo Pumacahua (later Royalist collaborator turned rebel).
San Martín's Liberating Expedition of Peru (1820) seized Pisco and established a maritime campaign that culminated in the occupation of Lima and the negotiation at the Punchauca environs; the Royalist counteroffensives included clashes at Supe and sieges at Callao. Bolívar's northern campaign from Nueva Granada followed victories at the Battle of Boyacá and the Battle of Carabobo, enabling his march into Peru and coordination with Sucre after the Battle of Pichincha secured Quito. The decisive military engagements in Peru were the Battle of Junín (1824), a cavalry action led by Bolívar and generals of the Liberating Expedition, and the Battle of Ayacucho (1824), where Sucre defeated Viceroy José de la Serna's forces, compelling the capitulation of Royalist armies in South America. Secondary operations included rebellions in Upper Peru (later Bolivia), the defeat of Royalist remnants under Pedro Antonio Olañeta at Tumusla, and naval actions involving Cochrane against Real Felipe and Spanish convoys.
The occupation of Lima by San Martín in 1821 led to the proclamation of the independence of Peru on July 28, 1821, with civil authorities such as José de San Martín and José Bernardo de Tagle participating in the declaration. San Martín's later meeting with Bolívar at the Guayaquil Conference influenced the transfer of the principal military effort to Bolívar, who entered Lima in 1823 and reestablished republican authority. The capitulation of Royalist armies after the Battle of Ayacucho and the surrender negotiated by Viceroy José de la Serna and ratified by officers like Pedro Antonio Olañeta and Cayetano de la Serna sealed Peru's liberation and enabled the withdrawal of Spanish forces to Chiloé Archipelago and the last Royalist redoubts.
Following military victory, Peru underwent political reconstruction involving figures such as José de la Riva-Agüero, Simón Bolívar (who assumed dictatorial powers briefly), and Andrés de Santa Cruz in the Andes. The collapse of Spanish control precipitated the creation of the Republic of Bolivia (formerly Upper Peru) after the Congress of Angostura influences and the Liberator movement, while internal conflicts among factions triggered caudillo struggles involving Agustín Gamarra, Luis José de Orbegoso, and uprisings in Arequipa. International recognition followed from states like Gran Colombia and the United Kingdom, while residual Royalist guerrillas and Spanish loyalists contested sovereignty in the Pacific littoral and highlands until the mid-1820s.
The Peru campaign reshaped South American geopolitics, ending Hispanic hegemony in the Andes and enabling the formation of successor states including Peru and Bolivia. Historians debate the relative contributions of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar in liberation, assess the role of foreign officers such as Thomas Cochrane and British veterans, and analyze continuities of indigenous participation exemplified by revolts like those of Túpac Amaru II's legacy and local leaders such as Mateo Pumacahua. The campaign's outcomes influenced later conflicts like the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation debates, the War of the Pacific, and constitutional developments embedded in documents like early Peruvian proclamations and the administrations of Andrés de Santa Cruz and Agustín Gamarra. Commemorations include anniversaries of the Battle of Ayacucho and the declaration of Peruvian independence, while scholarly work continues across fields represented by institutions such as the Biblioteca Nacional del Perú and universities in Lima, Sucre, and Bogotá.
Category:Wars of independence of South America Category:Military history of Peru