Parliament

Parliament
Name	Parliament
Caption	National legislative chamber
Foundation	Ancient and medieval assemblies to modern constitutions
Jurisdiction	National and subnational legislatures
Leader title	Speaker / President
Seats	Varies by country
Meeting place	Parliamentary building

Parliament

Parliament is a legislative assembly found in many polities that enacts laws, scrutinizes executive action, and represents constituencies. Rooted in assemblies such as the Witenagemot, Althing, Estates General, and Cortes of León, modern incarnations draw on models like the Westminster system, the Congress of Peru, and the Bundestag. Parliaments vary from unicameral bodies such as the Riksdag to bicameral systems like the United States Congress and the Parliament of India model, interacting with courts like the Supreme Court of the United States or the Court of Justice of the European Union.

History

Historical antecedents include the Thing institutions of medieval Scandinavia exemplified by the Althing in Iceland and the advisory councils such as the Witan in Anglo-Saxon England. Feudal assemblies evolved into estates systems seen in the Estates General of France and the Cortes of León in Iberia. The development of representative bodies accelerated with events like the Magna Carta, the English Civil War, the Glorious Revolution, and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England. Enlightenment ideas promoted by figures associated with the American Revolution and the French Revolution influenced legislative designs in the United States Constitution and the constitutional monarchies of Europe. Twentieth-century decolonization resulted in parliamentary institutions in former territories of the British Empire, French Union, and Dutch East Indies, while supranational legislatures emerged in entities like the European Parliament.

Structure and Composition

Parliaments may be unicameral or bicameral. Bicameral systems typically pair a lower chamber—examples include the House of Commons and the Lok Sabha—with an upper chamber such as the House of Lords, the Senate (Australia), or the Bundesrat. Membership is determined by election, appointment, or heredity; historical examples of hereditary chambers include the House of Lords pre-reform and the House of Peers (Japan). Electoral systems include first-past-the-post, proportional representation, and mixed-member models exemplified by the German electoral system. Leadership posts include the Speaker and the President of the Senate, while party groups such as the Conservative Party (UK), the Indian National Congress, and the Democratic Party organize majorities and oppositions. Staffing includes clerks, serjeants-at-arms, and committees patterned after bodies like the House Judiciary Committee and the Public Accounts Committee.

Powers and Functions

Legislatures exercise lawmaking authority as seen in passage of statutes like the United States Bill of Rights-era laws and national codes such as the Napoleonic Code. Fiscal powers include budget approval akin to the Budget of the United Kingdom or the Congressional budget process. Oversight mechanisms include question periods comparable to the Prime Minister's Questions and investigative inquiries like the Watergate scandal committees. Treaty approval and declarations of war may require legislative assent as with the Treaty of Versailles ratification debates and congressional war powers invoked during the War Powers Resolution. Appointment confirmations occur in systems modeled on the United States Senate confirmation hearings and parliamentary approval of ministers follows practices in the Westminster system.

Procedures and Legislative Process

Procedural stages typically include introduction, committee scrutiny, floor debates, amendments, and voting. Committees such as the select committees and the standing committees conduct hearings, call witnesses, and produce reports similar to investigations into the Iran-Contra affair. Floor procedures borrow from traditions like the Westminster system for motioning and the Congressional Record for debate transcription. Special procedures include budgetary appropriation bills modeled on the Appropriations Committee and confidence motions as employed during the 1923 United Kingdom general election crisis and no-confidence votes in parliamentary democracies.

Relationship with the Executive and Judiciary

The balance between legislature and executive varies: in parliamentary systems exemplified by the United Kingdom and Canada, the executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature, while in presidential systems such as the United States separation of powers limits direct control. Cabinets like the British Cabinet must maintain legislative confidence; dismissals and dissolutions involve constitutional instruments like the Royal Prerogative and written constitutions such as the Constitution of India. Judicial review mechanisms differ: courts including the Supreme Court of India and the Constitutional Court of South Africa adjudicate legislative compatibility with constitutions, whereas systems with parliamentary sovereignty, exemplified historically by the House of Commons under certain doctrines, limit judicial override.

Types and Variations by Country

National variations include the Knesset in Israel and the Sejm in Poland, subnational legislatures such as the Scottish Parliament and New York State Assembly, and supranational bodies like the European Parliament. Hybrid models combine features from the Westminster system, the French Fifth Republic, and the United States federal design. Some states employ consensus legislatures as in Switzerland with the Federal Assembly, while others retain appointed chambers similar to the Senate of Canada pre-reform debates. Post-conflict states have created transitional legislatures akin to the Interim Governing Council arrangements.

Criticisms and Reforms

Criticisms include accusations of democratic deficit raised against bodies like the House of Lords and the European Parliament prior to direct elections, concerns about corruption in scandals such as the Cash-for-questions affair, and debates over efficiency noted in reforms like the Parliament Act 1911 and electoral reforms in the Representation of the People Act 1918. Reform proposals include proportionalization advocated by movements referenced to the Reform Act 1832 legacy, upper-chamber reforms similar to the House of Lords Act 1999, and transparency initiatives inspired by investigations into the Panama Papers.

Category:Legislatures