Myanmar (Burma)

Myanmar (Burma)
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Conventional long name	Republic of the Union of Myanmar
Common name	Myanmar
Native name	ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတမြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်
Capital	Naypyidaw
Largest city	Yangon
Official languages	Burmese
Government type	Military junta
Area km2	676578
Population estimate	54,000,000
Currency	Myanmar kyat
Independence	4 January 1948

Myanmar (Burma) is a country in Southeast Asia on the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, bordering India, Bangladesh, China, Laos, and Thailand. Its complex history includes the classical kingdoms of Pagan Kingdom, Toungoo Dynasty, and Konbaung Dynasty, colonial rule by the British Raj, a mid-20th-century independence movement with leaders such as Aung San, and prolonged post-independence conflict involving groups like the Karen National Union and Kachin Independence Army. The country has been the focus of international attention for events including the 1988 pro-democracy Uprising, the 2007 Saffron Revolution, and the 2021 coup d'état involving the Tatmadaw. Myanmar contains diverse landscapes from the Irrawaddy River delta to the Shan Hills and the Tanintharyi Region archipelagos.

Etymology and Names

The modern English names derive from the endonym Bamar and the exonym used during the British Empire era, with "Burma" popularized in colonial texts about Lord Dufferin and diplomatic correspondence of the British government in the 19th century. The 1989 official renaming by the State Law and Order Restoration Council adopted "Myanmar" in international practice alongside continued use of "Burma" by entities such as the United States Department of State and the United Kingdom Foreign Office in varying contexts. Debates over nomenclature involve rights groups like Human Rights Watch, policymakers from the United Nations General Assembly, and activists connected to movements led by figures such as Aung San Suu Kyi.

History

Prehistory and early polity narratives reference archaeological sites like Mrauk-U and inscriptions from the Pagan Kingdom era, which interacted with Srivijaya and Pyu city-states. The Toungoo restoration under rulers including Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung expanded into conflicts with Ayutthaya and Manipur. The Konbaung Dynasty confronted the Qing Dynasty and later fought the First Anglo-Burmese War, leading to annexations by the British East India Company and incorporation into the British Raj. Anti-colonial leaders, notably Aung San, negotiated with Lord Mountbatten during World War II while factions such as the Burma National Army shifted alliances between Imperial Japan and Allied forces. Independence in 1948 began parliamentary governance influenced by the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League and subsequent insurgencies by groups like the Communist Party of Burma. The 1962 coup led by Ne Win established the Burmese Way to Socialism, which collapsed amid economic strain and led to the 1988 Uprising and the 1990 election swept by the National League for Democracy. The State Peace and Development Council period involved ceasefire negotiations with ethnic armed organizations including the Karen National Union and international actors such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The 2010s saw limited reforms, elections, and international engagement through institutions like the International Monetary Fund before the 2021 coup returned the Tatmadaw to direct rule, prompting sanctions by the European Union and responses from the United Nations Security Council.

Geography and Environment

Myanmar's topography ranges from the coastal lowlands of the Irrawaddy Delta and the Rakhine State littoral to the tectonic ranges of the Hkakabo Razi massif near the Himalayas and the Shan Plateau. The hydrology centers on the Irrawaddy River and tributaries like the Chindwin River, supporting rice cultivation in regions such as Ayeyarwady Region and mangrove systems in Tanintharyi Region. Biodiversity hotspots include habitats for species cataloged by International Union for Conservation of Nature surveys, with protected areas such as Hlawga National Park and threats from deforestation tied to logging companies connected with entities like those scrutinized by Transparency International. Natural resources include deposits of jade, rubies, petroleum, and natural gas—notably offshore fields developed with firms from China National Petroleum Corporation and joint ventures involving TotalEnergies and regional partners. Environmental challenges involve cyclones like Cyclone Nargis, soil erosion, and conservation issues addressed by groups such as World Wildlife Fund and researchers at institutions like University of Oxford and National University of Singapore.

Government and Politics

Political authority has oscillated among the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League, military regimes such as the State Law and Order Restoration Council, hybrid administrations, and civilian-led cabinets involving the National League for Democracy with leaders like Aung San Suu Kyi and presidents including Thein Sein and Htin Kyaw. The Tatmadaw retains constitutional powers codified in the 2008 constitution drafted under military oversight. Electoral contests have engaged parties like the Union Solidarity and Development Party and international observers from the European Union Election Observation Mission. Human rights institutions and NGOs such as Amnesty International and the International Commission of Jurists have documented abuses including those leading to charges at the International Court of Justice and advocacy by the International Criminal Court-aligned organizations. Regional diplomacy involves China–Myanmar relations, India–Myanmar relations, and membership in ASEAN where mechanisms such as the ASEAN Regional Forum engage crises like the Rohingya situation in Rakhine State.

Economy

The economy historically relied on agriculture—particularly rice production in the Ayeyarwady basin—and extractive sectors including gemstone mining in Mogok and oil and gas concessions exploited by companies like Petronas and Chevron Corporation. Sanctions imposed by the United States and the European Union affected trade flows until partial liberalization in the 2010s under reformers such as U Thein Sein and engagements with lenders like the World Bank and Asian Development Bank. Key infrastructure projects include pipelines linked to Sittwe Port investments and the Kyaukphyu Special Economic Zone tied to the China–Myanmar Economic Corridor. Informal economies, remittances from workers in Thailand and Malaysia, and state-owned enterprises like those formerly run by military conglomerates remain significant. Macroeconomic indicators have been disrupted by conflict and the 2021 coup, prompting responses from multilateral institutions and sovereign creditors.

Demographics and Society

The population comprises multiple ethnic groups including the Bamar people, Shan people, Karen people, Rakhine people, Kachin people, Chin people, Mon people, and Rohingya people, with languages such as Burmese language alongside scripts derived from the Brahmi script. Urban centers like Yangon, Mandalay, and Naypyidaw concentrate commerce, while rural livelihoods persist in states like Sagaing Region and Magway Region. Social movements have included student-led protests such as the 8888 Uprising and civil disobedience campaigns involving professionals from institutions like Yangon University and the University of Mandalay. Public health challenges have involved outbreaks monitored by World Health Organization teams and NGOs such as Médecins Sans Frontières; education and literacy initiatives have been supported by organizations like UNICEF and Save the Children.

Culture and Religion

Cultural life reflects Theravada Buddhist traditions centered on pilgrimage sites like the Shwedagon Pagoda and festivals such as Thingyan and Thadingyut, alongside minority practices of Islam in Myanmar, Christianity in Myanmar, and animist customs among Karen and Kachin communities. Classical arts include forms such as Burmese classical dance and music performed with instruments like the saung gauk harp; literature traces to poets and writers published in presses influenced by colonial-era figures and modern authors discussed in forums like the Bangkok International Book Fair. Cuisine features staples like mohinga and laphet, while handicrafts from regions like Bagan and Mandalay include lacquerware and woodcarving sold through markets monitored by heritage agencies such as UNESCO in contexts including the preservation of the Bagan Archaeological Zone.

Category:Countries in Asia Category:States and territories established in 1948