Mexican Independence

Mexican Independence
Name	Mexican Independence
Native name	Independencia de México
Date start	16 September 1810
Date end	27 September 1821
Location	Viceroyalty of New Spain
Result	Independence of Mexico

Mexican Independence was the process by which the territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain separated from the Spanish Empire and established the sovereign state that became the United Mexican States. Sparked by local grievances, international events, and creole ambitions, the conflict involved clergy, military officers, mestizo communities, indigenous groups, and foreign powers across campaigns, proclamations, and political negotiations.

Background and Causes

Long-term factors included tensions between peninsular elites and Criollos in the Bourbon Reforms, fiscal crises in the Royal Treasury, and the Crown's reliance on institutions such as the Audiencia of New Spain and the Viceroy's administration. The influence of the Enlightenment reached members of the Academy of San Carlos, readers of José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, and jurists trained at the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico. External shocks—the French invasion of Spain (1808), the abdications of Charles IV of Spain and Ferdinand VII of Spain, and the rise of the Cádiz Cortes—created a legitimacy crisis for colonial authorities including the Captaincy General of Guatemala and the Archbishopric of Mexico. Economic dislocation affected silver mining in regions like Zacatecas and Guanajuato, while social unrest involved groups centered in Querétaro, Puebla, and Toluca. Political clubs, conspiracies, and networks linked actors such as Mariano Abasolo, Juan Aldama, and Miguel Domínguez in planning that would soon erupt into open rebellion.

The Hidalgo Revolt (1810–1811)

The rebellion began with the famous proclamation by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in Dolores Hidalgo known as the Grito, followed by rapid mobilization of rural insurgents from Atotonilco and San Miguel el Grande into campaigns that captured Guanajuato and sacked the Alhóndiga de Granaditas. Hidalgo's forces included leaders such as Ignacio Allende, Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez, and María Ignacia "La Nacha" Rodríguez. The insurgent army's early victories at Las Cruces and threats to Mexico City prompted royalist responses led by generals like Félix María Calleja and Agustín de Iturbide's early royalist peers. Internal disagreements produced splits exemplified by José Mariano Jiménez and Nicolás Bravo, and culminated in the defeats at Puente de Calderón and the capture of Hidalgo at Acatita de Baján, leading to executions in Chihuahua and reorganization under figures like Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria.

The War of Independence (1811–1821)

After 1811 insurgency transformed into protracted insurgent and guerrilla warfare across provinces including Morelos, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Chiapas, and Nuevo León. Leaders such as José María Morelos y Pavón convened the Congress of Chilpancingo and issued the Sentimientos de la Nación, while deputies like Leona Vicario and Félix María Calleja's opponents debated independence and republicanism. Royalist campaigns led by the Realist Army commanders clashed with guerrillas: engagements at Acapulco, Izúcar de Matamoros, and Puruarán shaped momentum. International factors—including relations with the United Kingdom, the diplomacy of Juan O'Donojú, and the liberal restoration of Ferdinand VII—affected loyalty among elites such as Iturbide, Matamoros (José), and clerics like Manuel Abad y Queipo. Regional caudillos, agrarian communities, and indigenous polities in Tlaxcala and Yucatan influenced recruitment, while counterinsurgency strategies used forts like San Juan de Ulúa and naval elements from Veracruz.

Key Figures and Factions

Factions included royalists loyal to the Spanish Crown under commanders like Agustín de Iturbide (later a central figure), Félix María Calleja, and provincial governors such as Nicolás de Bravo (who shifted sides), versus insurgents led by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, José María Morelos y Pavón, Vicente Guerrero, Francisco Xavier Mina, and politicized allies like Agustín de Iturbide's opponents turned allies including Juan Aldama and Emiliano Zapata's later descendants drawing symbolism. Clerical influence involved hierarchs such as Matías de la Peña and civilians like Leona Vicario, while legal and intellectual currents traced through figures like Francisco Javier Clavijero, Andrés Quintana Roo, and Miguel Ramos Arizpe. Regional chiefs—Pedro Moreno, Joaquín de Arredondo, José María Morelos's local commanders—and foreign volunteers such as Francisco Xavier Mina and elements linked to the United States and British merchants complicated alliances. Political groupings ranged from monarchical proponents tied to the Plan of Iguala to republican advocates in the Congress of Chilpancingo.

Independence Achieved and the Plan of Iguala

By 1820 the liberal revolution in Spain under Rafael del Riego and the reestablishment of the Cádiz Constitution undermined peninsular authority. Negotiations culminated in the proclamation of the Plan of Iguala by Agustín de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero, combining the "Three Guarantees" of religion, independence, and unity and proposing a constitutional monarchy. Key signatories, royalist commanders, and provincial capitals including Chihuahua, Puebla de Zaragoza, Mexico City, and Querétaro accepted the plan, leading to the entry of the Army of the Three Guarantees into Mexico City and the sealing of independence with the Treaty of Córdoba negotiated with outgoing Spanish representatives like Juan O'Donojú. International recognition, negotiations with the United States and United Kingdom, and royalist capitulations at places such as San Juan de Ulúa consolidated sovereignty.

Aftermath and Early Independent Mexico

Independence produced immediate political experiments: the proclamation of the First Mexican Empire with Agustín de Iturbide as Emperor, the convening of constituent assemblies, and contestation among conservatives, liberals, and regional caudillos such as Guadalupe Victoria, Vicente Guerrero (later president), Nicolás Bravo, and Antonio López de Santa Anna. Economic disruptions affected mining centers in Real del Monte and agricultural zones in Morelos and Jalisco, while diplomatic initiatives engaged the United States of America, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Holy See. Social issues—land tenure disputes in Yucatán, indigenous rights in Oaxaca, and military pensions for veterans from battles like Calderón Bridge—shaped early legislation like decrees by the Cortés Constituyentes and the work of the Supreme Executive Power. Conflicts including the abdication and exile of Iturbide, the rise of republicans in the Constituent Congress, and later presidencies under leaders such as Guadalupe Victoria set patterns that influenced the trajectory of the new nation.

Category:History of Mexico