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| Metal–organic framework | |
|---|---|
| Name | Metal–organic framework |
| Type | Class of coordination polymers |
| Discovered | 1990s |
Metal–organic framework Metal–organic frameworks are a class of porous coordination solids combining metal ions or clusters with organic ligands to form extended networks. First recognized in the 1990s, these materials have attracted interest across fields for their high surface areas and tunable pore chemistry, bridging research communities including materials science, chemistry, and engineering. Major research centers and collaborations worldwide have advanced synthesis, characterization, and application development.
Metal–organic frameworks have been developed and studied at institutions such as University of California, Berkeley, MIT, Max Planck Society, Stanford University, Harvard University, University of Cambridge, ETH Zurich, University of Tokyo, University of California, Los Angeles, and Imperial College London. Early canonical examples include frameworks reported by groups linked to Yaghi Group and programs associated with National Science Foundation, European Research Council, DARPA, Toyota Motor Corporation, and BASF. Research milestones were showcased at conferences like the American Chemical Society meetings, Materials Research Society symposia, and Gordon Research Conferences. Reviews in journals tied to publishers from Nature Publishing Group, American Chemical Society Publications, Royal Society of Chemistry, and Wiley-VCH consolidated the field. Funding and industrial interest from companies such as Johnson Matthey, Air Liquide, Siemens, Shell plc, and ExxonMobil spurred translational efforts.
Framework construction commonly uses metal nodes from elements studied at facilities like Argonne National Laboratory and Brookhaven National Laboratory—including metals in rows associated with Periodic Table groups such as copper, zinc, zirconium, iron, chromium, and titanium. Organic linkers often derive from ligands characterized in collections maintained by American Chemical Society databases and prepared via reactions taught in curricula at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and University of Oxford. Synthetic methods include solvothermal techniques developed in labs at Tohoku University, microwave-assisted routes from groups at Kyoto University, mechanochemical synthesis advanced by researchers at University of Ghent, and layer-by-layer deposition employed in work at EPFL. Modulators and templating agents used in synthesis have been optimized through collaborations with BASF and Bayer. Scale-up demonstrations were performed in pilot facilities operated by Johnson Controls and consortiums led by ArcelorMittal.
MOFs exhibit extreme surface areas measured in facilities like National Institute of Standards and Technology labs and demonstrate tunable pore sizes relevant to separations in contexts connected with Dow Chemical Company. Thermal behavior has been investigated using instruments at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Electronic, magnetic, and optical properties have been probed in collaborations involving Bell Labs and IBM Research. Sorption isotherms compared in studies involving Royal Society of Chemistry journals reveal high uptakes for gases such as hydrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide—topics of interest to U.S. Department of Energy and European Commission programs. Mechanical properties under compression and shear have been modeled by researchers at California Institute of Technology and validated in testing facilities at Fraunhofer Society.
Applications encompass gas storage initiatives supported by U.S. Department of Energy, carbon capture projects funded through European Union mechanisms, and catalysis partnerships with Dow Chemical Company and ExxonMobil Research. In separation science, MOFs have been tested in pilot plants by Air Products and Chemicals and in membrane systems developed by DuPont. Sensor prototypes were advanced with input from Honeywell International and Siemens. Biomedical explorations involving drug delivery and imaging saw collaborations with Johns Hopkins University, Massachusetts General Hospital, and companies like Pfizer. Photocatalytic and electrocatalytic variants were pursued in consortia including Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology and Toyota Research Institute. Energy storage and conversion demonstrations linked to Tesla, Inc. and General Motors investigated hybrid systems. Environmental remediation pilots involved NGOs and agencies such as World Bank and United Nations Environment Programme.
Characterization employs tools at national user facilities such as Advanced Photon Source, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, ISIS Neutron and Muon Source, and Spallation Neutron Source. X-ray diffraction studies are performed in beamlines at Diamond Light Source and analyzed using software developed in projects associated with European Molecular Biology Laboratory. Electron microscopy imaging has been conducted at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems. Gas adsorption measurements utilize instrumentation from vendors collaborating with Anton Paar and standards coordinated by National Institute of Standards and Technology. Spectroscopic analyses include nuclear magnetic resonance supported by resources at Rutherford Appleton Laboratory and infrared measurements at National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center. Computational modeling integrates methods from groups at Princeton University, ETH Zurich, Columbia University, and supercomputing allocations from Argonne Leadership Computing Facility.
Stability under humid, acidic, and basic conditions has been assessed in studies linked to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency guidelines and industrial durability testing at 3M Company facilities. Chemical degradation pathways were elucidated in academic collaborations involving University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and Georgia Institute of Technology. Post-synthetic modification strategies to enhance robustness were developed by teams associated with University of California, Santa Barbara and Rice University. Thermal decomposition mechanisms were examined in work supported by National Aeronautics and Space Administration materials programs and aerospace partners such as Boeing and Airbus.
Life-cycle assessments and technoeconomic analyses have been reported in studies undertaken with input from Shell plc, BP, TotalEnergies, and academic units at Imperial College London and ETH Zurich. Supply-chain concerns for ligands and metals have been assessed in consultations involving World Economic Forum and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Recycling, reuse, and end-of-life handling of MOFs were topics in workshops convened by United Nations Industrial Development Organization and International Energy Agency. Policy implications for greenhouse gas mitigation intersect with reports by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and national agencies such as U.S. Department of Energy.
Category:Porous materials