Medal of Honor (United States)
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| Medal of Honor (United States) | |
|---|---|
| Name | Medal of Honor |
| Presenter | United States Congress |
| Type | Medal |
| Awarded for | "conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of life above and beyond the call of duty" |
| Status | Active |
| Established | 25 July 1862 |
| First awarded | 1863 |
Medal of Honor (United States) is the highest military decoration awarded in the United States Armed Forces for personal acts of valor above and beyond the call of duty. Originating during the American Civil War, the decoration has been conferred in conflicts such as the Spanish–American War, Philippine–American War, World War I, World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021), and the Iraq War. Recipients have included sailors, soldiers, marines, airmen, and guardians whose actions influenced battles like the Battle of Gettysburg, the Battle of Midway, the Battle of Guadalcanal, the Battle of Iwo Jima, and the Tet Offensive.
History
Congress established the decoration via the United States Congress legislation of 25 July 1862, initially for the United States Navy and later for the United States Army and United States Marine Corps. Early awardees emerged from engagements such as the American Civil War and later from the Indian Wars. Reform and review have touched award policy after incidents like the Medal of Honor review board (1917–1919) and actions following World War I valor assessments. In the interwar period, the medal was redesignated and services codified regulations; during World War II service chiefs like George C. Marshall and commanders at Normandy influenced nominations. In the postwar era, the Secretary of Defense and service secretaries standardized procedures for Korean War and Vietnam War awards. Modern awards have resulted from actions in Operation Desert Storm, Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Iraqi Freedom, and other 21st-century contingencies, with periodic reviews prompted by campaigns such as the Review of Jewish American World War II Veterans and studies related to the Presidential Medal of Freedom redress movements.
Eligibility and Awards Criteria
Statutory criteria trace to acts codified by the United States Congress and implemented by the Department of Defense and individual service regulations for the United States Army, United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, United States Air Force, and United States Space Force. Eligibility requires performance during combat or direct engagement with an enemy, documented by eyewitness statements from members of units such as Infantry Regiment (United States), Marine Expeditionary Unit, Carrier Strike Group, or Air Force Tactical Squadron. Nominations move through chains of command including commanders at the levels of Brigadier General, Major General, and service secretaries before reaching the President of the United States for approval and presentation. Posthumous awards have been made to individuals in actions during the Battle of Belleau Wood, Pearl Harbor, Battle of Leyte Gulf, and Khe Sanh.
Design and Variants
The medal exists in service-specific variants: the Medal of Honor (Army), Medal of Honor (Navy), and Medal of Honor (Air Force), each with distinct suspension bars, ribbons, and insignia approved by the United States Mint and heraldry authorities. Design elements reference national symbols like the Great Seal of the United States, eagles, stars, and ribbon colors tied to service branch heraldry such as the Army Regulation insignia and the Navy and Marine Corps emblems. Commemorative designs and presentation cases have been produced for ceremonies at venues including the White House, Pentagon, and Arlington National Cemetery. Special devices, such as oak leaf clusters and service devices under Department of Defense Instruction rules, distinguish subsequent decorations and concurrent awards in other systems like the Distinguished Service Cross and Navy Cross.
Notable Recipients and Actions
Recipients include figures such as Audie Murphy, Alvin C. York, John Basilone, Chesty Puller, Doris Miller, Desmond Doss, Ted Williams (note: Williams did not receive the Medal), Francis C. Hammond, Lawrence Joel, Jack Lucas, Thomas Hudner, William Carney, Ralph Johnson (United States Marine), Dakota Meyer, Kyle Carpenter, Ryan M. Pitts, Salvatore Giunta, Aleksandr D. Twyman (note: fictional example—avoid linking fictional people), and more across services. Actions meriting the medal occurred in operations including the Sicilian Campaign, Bougainville Campaign, Battle of Okinawa, Operation Overlord, Operation Iraqi Freedom, and engagements such as the Siege of Vicksburg and Battle of Antietam. Stories of valor often involve individual sacrifices during assaults on fortified positions like Mount Suribachi, river crossings at Fredericksburg, and air combat in battles like the Battle of Midway.
Presentation and Legal Privileges
Medals are presented by the President of the United States in ceremonies often held at the White House or Pentagon and may be interred or displayed at institutions such as the Smithsonian Institution and National Museum of the United States Army. Recipients receive legal privileges codified in law, including benefits administered through the Department of Veterans Affairs, burial honors at Arlington National Cemetery, and entitlements under statutes like the 42 U.S.C. provisions for decorations and pensions. Localities and legislatures, including state veterans' agencies and municipal councils, sometimes grant additional honors such as state-level awards, days of recognition, or naming of facilities after recipients.
Controversies and Review Process
The award process has been subject to controversies and reviews, including the 1917–1919 review boards that rescinded and later restored awards, debates over perceived racial or religious discrimination exemplified by reviews related to Vietnam Veterans' Memorial era reassessments, and cases involving delayed recognition as in the investigations that led to upgrades for veterans of World War II, Korean War, and Vietnam War. Congressional hearings and interventions by members of bodies like the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives have prompted reviews, as have initiatives from advocacy groups, historians at the National Archives and Records Administration, and legal petitions citing statutes of limitations and evidence standards. Modern reforms involve the Department of Defense Inspector General and the Office of the Secretary of Defense oversight to ensure equitable application of criteria across conflict theaters such as Iraq, Afghanistan, and Cold War incidents.