Lebanon (1975–1990)

Lebanon (1975–1990)
Conventional long name	Lebanese Civil War
Common name	Lebanon (1975–1990)
Era	Cold War
Status	Civil conflict
Start date	13 April 1975
End date	13 October 1990
Capital	Beirut
Largest city	Beirut
Government type	De facto fragmented authorities

Lebanon (1975–1990) was a multifactional civil war that transformed Beirut, reshaped Lebanese politics, and drew in regional and international actors such as Syria, Israel, Palestine Liberation Organization, United States, and Iran. Rooted in sectarian arrangements from the National Pact (1943), demographic shifts involving Lebanese Christians, Lebanese Muslims, and Palestinian militias, and geopolitical pressures from the Cold War, the conflict produced shifting alliances including the Lebanese Front, Lebanese National Movement, and later the South Lebanon Army.

Background and Causes

Tensions traced to the National Pact (1943), which allocated power among Maronite Christians, Sunni Islam, and Shia Islam elites such as members of the Kataeb Party, supporters of Camille Chamoun, and rivalries involving the Kamal Jumblatt-aligned Progressive Socialist Party. The 1969 Cairo Agreement and the presence of the Palestine Liberation Organization under Yasir Arafat altered demographics and security, provoking reactions from Bashir Gemayel, leaders of the Phalangist movement, and conservative Lebanese factions. Regional events—Six-Day War, Black September (1970), Yom Kippur War (1973), and Iranian revolutionary developments around Ruhollah Khomeini—combined with interventions by Soviet Union and United States intelligence networks to intensify polarization.

Major Parties and Factions

Competing coalitions included the right-wing Lebanese Front led by Pierre Gemayel, Bashir Gemayel, and Suleiman Frangieh; the leftist Lebanese National Movement under Kamal Jumblatt allied with the PLO; and sectarian militias like the Kataeb Regulatory Forces, Al-Murabitun, National Liberal Party, and Tigers Militia under Dory Chamoun. Syrian forces under Hafez al-Assad and later diplomacy involved Rafic Hariri-era figures tangentially; Israeli interventions included the Israel Defense Forces and proxy South Lebanon Army commanded by Saad Haddad and later collaborators. Islamist and Shi'a movements such as the Amal Movement led by Nabih Berri and the nascent Hezbollah also rose, influenced by Iranian Revolution backers including Ali Khamenei and Ruhollah Khomeini supporters.

Timeline of the Conflict

The war erupted with the Ain el-Rammaneh bus massacre and subsequent Black Saturday escalations in 1975, leading to sectarian confrontations across Beirut and the Chouf District. The early phase saw clashes between Phalangists and Palestinian groups culminating in the 1976 Syrian intervention and the formation of the Lebanese Arab Deterrent Force. The 1978 Operation Litani by Israel followed PLO attacks, while the 1982 Lebanon War (1982) produced the Israeli siege of Beirut and the assassination of Bachir Gemayel, the Sabra and Shatila massacre perpetrated by the Phalange and allies, and the multinational Multinational Force in Lebanon withdrawal after the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings that targeted United States Marine Corps and French contingents. The late 1980s saw the War of the Camps, the rise of Michel Aoun as head of a Lebanese Army faction, the Taif Agreement negotiations in Taif, Saudi Arabia, Syrian reassertion, and the 1990 end marked by the defeat of Aoun and consolidation under Syrian-backed authorities.

Key Battles, Massacres, and Military Operations

Notable events included the Battle of the Hotels, the long Siege of Beirut, Karantina massacre, Tel al-Zaatar massacre, and the Sabra and Shatila massacre. Operations such as Operation Litani, Operation Peace for Galilee, and internal offensives like the Mountain War in the Chouf between Druze fighters of the Progressive Socialist Party and Maronite militias shaped control over Mount Lebanon. External engagements involved the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, 1985 South Lebanon conflict, and periodic clashes with Israeli Defense Forces along the Blue Line. International inquiries including the Kahan Commission investigated roles of leaders such as Ariel Sharon in atrocities.

Political Developments and Diplomacy

Diplomatic efforts encompassed the 1976 Cairo Agreement, the 1982 Reagan administration-led multinational arrival, the 1989–1990 Taif Agreement brokered by Saudi Arabia with participation by Syria and United States envoys, and the subsequent constitutional overhaul that reallocated power between President, Parliament of Lebanon, and cabinet posts to rebalance sectarian representation. Key political figures involved in negotiation and power contests included Rashid Karami, Selim Hoss, Michel Aoun, Rafic Hariri emerging postwar, Bashir Gemayel before his assassination, and Syrian interlocutors like Hafez al-Assad and later Bashar al-Assad allies.

Humanitarian Impact and Displacement

The conflict produced hundreds of thousands of fatalities and widespread destruction of Beirut infrastructure, prompting mass displacement of populations including Palestinian refugees in Sabra, Shatila, and other camps overseen by UNRWA. Sectarian cleansing in the Akkar District, South Lebanon, and Mount Lebanon created internal refugees and emigration waves to destinations like France, United States, Brazil, Canada, and Australia. Humanitarian crises involved shortages treated by organizations such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and aid delivered amid sieges and blockades that affected hospitals like Hôtel-Dieu de France and universities including the American University of Beirut.

Aftermath and Legacy

The postwar period saw implementation of the Taif Agreement leading to Syrian political dominance until the early 2000s, the disarmament of many militias but retention of groups like Hezbollah as political and military actors, and reconstruction led by business figures who later included Rafic Hariri and the revival of sectors centered on Beirut Central District redevelopment. Long-term effects included altered sectarian demography, persistent Syrian influence addressed by the Cedar Revolution and international courts addressing assassinations, cultural responses from artists and writers tied to institutions such as the Sursock Museum and American University of Beirut, and ongoing disputes over accountability exemplified by debates around the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. The war shaped regional alignments among Syria, Israel, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Western powers and left enduring legacies in Lebanese politics, memory, and diaspora communities.

Category:Lebanese Civil War