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| Korea under Joseon | |
|---|---|
| Native name | Joseon Dynasty |
| Conventional long name | Kingdom of Joseon |
| Era | Early modern period |
| Government type | Monarchy |
| Year start | 1392 |
| Year end | 1897 |
| Capital | Hanyang |
| Common languages | Middle Korean (Classical Chinese) |
| Religion | Confucianism, Buddhism, Shamanism, Catholic Church in Korea |
| Leader title | King |
| Legislature | Uijeongbu (early), Yejo (ministries) |
Korea under Joseon
Korea under Joseon was the dynastic state founded by Yi Seong-gye that ruled the Korean Peninsula from 1392 to 1897, shaping Seoul-centered administration, Confucian culture, and tributary relations with Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty. The period encompassed episodes such as the Imjin War, internal factional strife among Sarim and Hungu factions, land reforms, and encounters with Joseon–Japan relations and Western powers. Its bureaucratic institutions, civil service examinations, and cultural productions left durable legacies influencing modern Korea and Northeast Asian history.
The dynasty was established when Yi Seong-gye overthrew the Goryeo dynasty and proclaimed the Joseon state, inaugurating reforms under founding rulers like Taejo of Joseon and consolidating royal authority through bodies such as the Uijeongbu and the Six Ministries including Yejo and Ijo. Early Joseon promoted Neo-Confucianism via figures like Jeong Dojeon and Yi Hwang (Toegye) and navigated succession struggles exemplified by the Prince Suyang coup and the reign of Sejo of Joseon. Factional conflict among Sarim scholars produced literati purges (e.g., Gichukoksa and Eulsa Sahwa type incidents) that shaped court politics through the Seoin and Namin factions and later Westerners and Easterners. External crises included the Japanese invasions led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in the Imjin War (1592–1598) and the Manchu invasions culminating in the Joseon–Qing relations shift after the Second Manchu invasion of Korea (1636), resulting in heavy tribute obligations and the vassal-suzerain arrangement recognized by both Ming dynasty loyalists and the Qing dynasty. The late Joseon era faced reform attempts by officials like Jeong Yak-yong (Dasan) and intellectuals connected to the Donghak movement and violent encounters with Western diplomats culminating in the Treaty of Ganghwa and unequal treaties involving United States and France missions. The dynasty’s end saw the proclamation of the Korean Empire under Gojong in 1897 amid increasing Japanese influence in Korea.
Joseon society was stratified under a hereditary yangban elite system including civil and military officials recruited via the gwageo civil service examinations, with prominent literati such as Yi I (Yulgok) and Jeong Dojeon shaping elite identity. Peasantry, artisans, and merchants formed lower strata, while outcast groups like the Baekjeong faced legal discrimination codified in the Gyeongguk Daejeon and local magistrates’ records. Family structures emphasized patrilineal descent, traced through jokbo genealogies maintained by clans like the Jeonju Yi clan and Andong Kim clan, and Confucian rituals governed mourning and ancestor worship practiced at Jesa rites. Women’s roles were circumscribed by neo-Confucian gender norms propagated by figures such as Kim Jip and texts like the Samgang Haengshilgok and influenced domestic education using Nugak and municipal charitable institutions.
Agrarian production was the economic backbone, with rice cultivation in the Yeongnam and Gyeonggi regions and dry-field farming in the Jeolla provinces; land tax systems like the gyeon and labor levies were administered by local hyeon and gun magistrates. Large estates controlled by yangban clans, Buddhist temples, and royal households coexisted with smallholders; land reforms and cadastral surveys (e.g., Daedongbeop reforms debated in later centuries) aimed to rationalize taxation and reduce corruption by officials such as Yi Hwang followers and pragmatic reformers like Yun Jeung. Commerce expanded along caravan routes and maritime trade networks linking Busan ports to Tsushima and Ryukyuan intermediaries, while markets regulated by Bangseong and guild-like merchant associations such as Jangdokdae managed grain storage, salt, and garrison provisions. Monetary systems fluctuated between copper coins, commodity exchange, and rice equivalents, with periodic famines and natural calamities prompting relief measures recorded in Annals of the Joseon Dynasty.
Joseon culture foregrounded Confucian scholarship and civil ritual, producing canonical works by scholars like Yi Hwang and Yi I and state-sponsored compilations such as the Sejong Sillok and the Joseon wangjo sillok (Annals). Royal patronage under Sejong the Great produced scientific, literary, and artistic innovations including the creation of Hangul (originally "Hunminjeongeum"), advances in Jongmyo rituals, and military technology recorded alongside inventions attributed to Jang Yeong-sil. Buddhist institutions persisted despite suppression under early Neo-Confucian reformers, with temples like Haeinsa preserving the Tripitaka Koreana. Catholicism spread clandestinely before persecution episodes involving figures like Yi Byeok and Lee Seung-hun and international missions; indigenous religious practices such as Korean shamanism continued in village life. Visual and material culture flourished in celadon, buncheong, and white porcelain traditions exemplified by artisans associated with provincial kilns and court painters recorded in the Uigwe ritual protocols.
Military organization relied on provincial soldiers, hyeongbyeong, and central guard units including the Hunryeong and naval forces built during Yi Sun-sin’s command in the Imjin War; famous battles like Myeongnyang and the use of turtle ships proved decisive against Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598). Fortifications, border garrisons, and diplomatic missions to Ming dynasty and later Qing dynasty courts defined Joseon’s foreign posture alongside tributary embassies to Ryukyu Kingdom and trade with Sakoku-era Japan intermediaries on Tsushima. Late Joseon confronted unequal treaties and gunboat diplomacy from United States and European powers, internal rebellions such as the Donghak Peasant Revolution, and increasing Japanese military and political encroachment culminating in protectorate status.
Under monarchs like Sejong the Great and scholars such as Jang Yeong-sil, Joseon advanced astronomy with devices like the Honcheonsigye and calendrical reforms, produced printed works via movable type, and developed irrigation and agronomic manuals by practical scholars such as Jeong Yak-yong. Education centered on state schools like the Sungkyunkwan and local hyanggyo and private seowon academies founded by Sarim scholars; pedagogical texts included Sŏngnyong commentaries and curriculum based on Four Books and Five Classics. Medical knowledge compiled in texts like the Dongui Bogam reflected Korean herbology and clinical practice, while military treatises and cartography advanced with practical manuals used by provincial commanders.