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| Kharijism | |
|---|---|
| Name | Kharijism |
| Caption | Early Islamic schisms in the 7th century |
| Founded date | c. 657–716 |
| Founded place | Iraq |
| Scriptures | Quran (interpreted) |
| Theology | Sunni Islam origin; Ibadi relation |
| Main regions | Iraq, Kufa, Basra, Maghreb, Al-Andalus |
Kharijism Kharijism emerged as an early Islamic history schismatic movement in the mid‑7th century following the First Fitna, the Battle of Siffin, and the arbitration dispute involving Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muawiyah I, and Amr ibn al‑As. It developed distinctive doctrines about leadership, sin, and rebellion that set it apart from contemporaneous groups such as those around Aisha bint Abu Bakr, Husayn ibn Ali, and the followers of Abd al‑Malik ibn Marwan. Its adherents engaged in major conflicts across regions including Iraq, Kuwait (historical al‑Katif), Maghreb, and Al‑Andalus, influencing later currents like Ibadi Islam and various Sunni and Shia responses.
The movement traces roots to the aftermath of the Battle of Siffin (657) and the subsequent arbitration between Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muawiyah I, when dissenting troops led by figures such as Abdullah ibn Wahb al‑Rasibi and Najda ibn Amir rejected compromises sanctioned by Uthman ibn Affan’s clan, the Umayyad Caliphate. The label arose from opponents and later historiographers in works by Al‑Tabari, Ibn Khaldun, and Ibn Hazm who recorded terms used in polemical narratives, while contemporaneous epistles from leaders like Nafi ibn al‑Azraq survive in later compilations. Early centers included Kufa and Basra, with insurgent activities spreading toward Tihama, Ifriqiya, and Al‑Andalus.
Adherents advanced doctrines concerning the qualifications for the caliphate, asserting that only a morally pure and divinely guided leader could legitimately rule, a stance that clashed with the positions of figures such as Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al‑Khattab, and Uthman ibn Affan. They held strict views on faith and sin, proposing criteria for takfir that led to declarations against rulers like Muawiyah I and later Yazid I; these positions were critiqued in treatises by scholars such as Al‑Ghazzali, Ibn Taymiyyah, and Al‑Shafi‘i. Their hermeneutics of the Quran and Hadith emphasized active jihad and communal purity, drawing polemical responses in legal and theological works by Al‑Mawardi, Ibn Qudamah, and Al‑Baladhuri. Debates over free will, predestination, and legal responsibility placed them at odds with schools like the Mu'tazila and practitioners from the Maliki and Hanafi traditions.
The Kharijite movement splintered into multiple groups after early confrontations such as the massacre at Nahrawan (circa 658) where forces under Ali ibn Abi Talib defeated dissidents led by Qatari ibn al‑Fujaa. Subsequent insurrections under leaders including Nafi ibn al‑Azraq, Abu Bilal Mirdas, and Najda ibn Amir challenged caliphal authorities in regions like Iraq, Yemen, and Hejaz. In Ifriqiya and the western Mediterranean, factions clashed with the Umayyad Caliphate and the Aghlabids, culminating in episodes documented by chroniclers such as Ibn Idhari and Ibn Hazm during the expansion into Al‑Andalus where confrontations intersected with the histories of Tariq ibn Ziyad and Abd al‑Rahman I. Major battles and treaties involving Alid claimants and Umayyad forces, including skirmishes near Basra and campaigns led by governors like Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, shaped the political map of early Islamic conquest territories.
Politically, the movement prioritized active revolt against rulers judged illegitimate, producing doctrines of rebellion invoked against figures such as Muawiyah I, Yazid I, and later provincial governors like Al‑Hajjaj ibn Yusuf. Its praxis included guerrilla tactics, targeted assassinations, and the establishment of quasi‑state polities in locales like Oman and Tihama, prompting military responses from commanders such as Marwan I and Abd al‑Malik ibn Marwan. Kharijite juristic practices influenced legal discourses in the courts of Cordoba and the tribunals of Tunis through later interactions with groups like the Ibadis and critiques by jurists including Al‑Muwafaq and Ibn Hazm. Their emphasis on communal enforcement of moral standards produced recurring conflicts with urban elites in Kufa, Basra, and Carthage.
The movement fragmented into numerous sects, some extreme and militant such as the Azariqa and others more moderate like the group that developed into the Ibadi community. Chroniclers including Al‑Tabari, Ibn al‑Athir, and Ibn Khaldun catalogued schisms with names such as the Sufriya and the Najdat, each associated with leaders like Nafi ibn al‑Azraq and Najda ibn Amir. The legacy influenced later Sunni and Shia polemics, with authors like Al‑Baladhuri, Ibn al‑Jawzi, and Al‑Maqrizi treating Kharijite episodes as instructive for questions of legitimacy, rebellion, and orthodoxy. The memory of these sects informed legal doctrines in the Maliki school and theological rebuttals by Al‑Ash'ari and Al‑Maturidi.
Surviving communities bearing doctrinal kinship include the Ibadi populations of Oman, Zanzibar, and Djerba where historical continuities are visible in communal governance and jurisprudential texts preserved by scholars like Al‑Kharusi and Al‑Shiha. Academic studies in the modern era by historians such as Patricia Crone, Hugh Kennedy, Wilferd Madelung, and Fuat Sezgin have reassessed sources compiled by Al‑Tabari, Ibn Khaldun, and Ibn Hazm. Contemporary political movements and militant groups occasionally draw rhetorical parallels with early Kharijite themes in polemics involving states like Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Libya, prompting scholarly engagement from institutions such as SOAS University of London, Harvard University, and University of Oxford. The historical discourse appears in museum collections and manuscript projects at Dar al‑Makhṭūṭāt and archives in Cairo, Baghdad, and Toledo.