Keijo (Seoul)

Keijo (Seoul) was the official Japanese-era name for Seoul used during Korea under Japanese rule from 1910 to 1945. The designation appeared in administrative documents of the Empire of Japan and in maps produced by institutions such as the Japanese Government Railways and the Imperial Household Agency, and it figured prominently in interactions with entities like the Governor-General of Korea and the Ministry of Home Affairs (Japan). The name influenced colonial urban planning by bodies including the Keijō Imperial University and was contested in postwar memory alongside institutions like the United States Army Military Government in Korea and the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.

Etymology and historical usage

The toponym derived from the Chinese characters 京城 and corresponded to historical names used under the Joseon dynasty court and earlier Goryeo and Unified Silla historiography, aligning linguistically with usages in records kept by Qing dynasty envoys, Ming dynasty sources, and Yuan dynasty chronicles. During negotiations such as the Treaty of Portsmouth and diplomatic exchanges involving the Meiji government and the Russian Empire, the name appeared in gazetteers compiled by the Geographical Survey Institute (Japan), the British Foreign Office, and the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Cartographers from the Royal Geographical Society, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire also adopted variants that reflected contemporary imperial nomenclature. The term was formalized by decrees of the Governor-General of Korea and used by legal entities including the Supreme Court of Korea under occupation and the Tokyo District Court for jurisdictional matters. Intellectuals such as Shim Kyŏng-sŏk and Naoki Hoshino debated the implications of colonial toponyms in periodicals like Dong-a Ilbo, Chosun Ilbo, and Maeil Sinbo.

Keijo during Japanese colonial rule

Under the Governor-General of Korea, Keijo functioned as the administrative center for policies enacted by the Ministry of Colonial Affairs (Japan) and implemented through agencies like the Keijō City Hall and the Keijo Railway Bureau. Urban governance intersected with colonial law from the Meiji Constitution era and involved officials educated at institutions such as Keijō Imperial University and trained in Waseda University, Keio University, and Tokyo Imperial University. Economic initiatives linked Keijo to enterprises including Nippon Steel, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Samsung, and Mitsui & Co. through industrial projects and infrastructure schemes coordinated with the South Manchuria Railway Company and the Bank of Japan. Labor migrations connected Keijo to ports like Incheon, Busan, Yokohama, and Dalian, while transport projects tied it to the Gyeongbu Line and the Kyŏng-in Line under management by the Chosen Government Railway. Political movements, including activists associated with the March 1st Movement and exile circles near the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai, challenged colonial rule, and incidents such as the Gwangju Student Independence Movement resonated in Keijo. Repressive responses involved policing by the Special Higher Police and judicial proceedings in magistrates' courts influenced by codes like the Civil Code (Japan).

Urban development and architecture

Colonial-era modernization in Keijo featured projects led by planners trained in the Tokyo Imperial University and consultants from the London School of Economics and the École des Beaux-Arts. Major constructions included administrative complexes, ports, and railway stations influenced by styles seen in Yokohama, Nagoya, Osaka, and Shanghai. Landmark buildings associated with the period included designs linked to architects educated at Keio University and firms tied to Nihon Sekkei and international firms operating in Manchukuo and Taiwan under Japanese rule. Infrastructure projects connected Keijo with hydroengineering works on the Han River and transport arteries comparable to developments in Tokyo, Seoul City Hall (old) precedents, and municipal parks inspired by Ueno Park and Kyu-Furukawa Gardens. Residential districts housed bureaucrats from the Governor-General of Korea and expatriates from companies like Japan Tobacco and Salt Public Corporation, while commercial zones featured banks such as the Bank of Chōsen and trading houses like Sumitomo. Urban landscape changes paralleled those in cities like Taipei and Seoul's Jongno District and affected heritage sites connected to the Gyeongbokgung precinct and the Jongmyo Shrine.

Cultural and social impact

Keijo served as a focal point for media outlets including The Korea Daily, Keijo Nippo, Dong-a Ilbo, and Chosun Ilbo, and for cultural institutions such as theaters reminiscent of Kabuki-za and cinematic venues showing films from studios like Toho and Nikkatsu. Educational establishments like Keijō Imperial University and mission schools run by organizations stemming from American Methodist Mission and Presbyterian Church in Korea shaped elites alongside private academies linked to figures like Kim Koo and Syngman Rhee. Religious life involved temples and churches associated with the Jogye Order, Catholic Church in Korea, and Korean Protestant denominations, intersecting with social movements led by personalities including An Changho and Yun Bong-gil. Cultural synthesis produced literary activity in journals connected to writers like Yi Kwang-su, Han Yong-un, Kim Sowol, and artists who exhibited in salons influenced by currents from Paris, Tokyo, and Shanghai. Labor organizations, student groups, and nationalist societies engaged with transnational networks involving activists from Manchuria, the Russian Far East, and diasporas in Hawaii and California.

Name change and legacy in modern Seoul

Following Japan's defeat in World War II and the establishment of the United States Army Military Government in Korea, the city's official designation reverted under Korean authorities and later the First Republic of South Korea to names used by the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea and nationalist leaders such as Syngman Rhee and Kim Il-sung in northern historiography. Debates over monuments and colonial-era architecture involved stakeholders including the National Museum of Korea, the Cultural Heritage Administration (South Korea), and municipal agencies of Seoul Metropolitan Government, sparking scholarship from historians at Seoul National University, Yonsei University, Konkuk University, and international researchers affiliated with the Harvard-Yenching Institute and the School of Oriental and African Studies. Memory studies connect the legacy of the colonial toponym to broader discussions involving the Comfort women issue, the Korean independence movement, and reconciliation efforts involving the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (South Korea) and Japanese counterparts such as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan). Contemporary urban redevelopment in areas once labeled under the colonial name draws visitors to sites like the Gyeongbokgung, the Deoksugung, and the Seoul Museum of History, while debates continue in courts such as the Seoul Central District Court and academic forums at institutions like Sogang University and Pusan National University.

Category:History of Seoul Category:Korea under Japanese rule