Jewish

Jewish
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Group	Jewish

Jewish

The term denotes an ethnoreligious group originating among the ancient Israelites and Hebrews of the Levant, associated with the religion rooted in the Hebrew Bible and later writings. Jews have formed communities linked by shared texts, rituals, laws, languages, and historical memories that connect to sites such as Jerusalem, Babylon, and Alexandria. Over millennia they have developed diverse traditions reflected in different communities across Europe, North Africa, Middle East, Americas, and Ethiopia.

Etymology and Definitions

The English name derives via Old French and Latin from Iudaea, the Roman-era province that encompassed much of the historical kingdom centered on Jerusalem; related terms include the Biblical Judah (son of Jacob) and the tribal territory of Judah (tribal allotment). Scholarly definitions vary: some emphasize descent from the ancient Israelites tied to ancestral figures like Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (patriarch), while others emphasize adherence to halakhic conversion as codified in texts such as the Mishnah and Talmud. Legal definitions have been significant in cases involving institutions like the Chief Rabbinate of Israel and legislative frameworks such as the Law of Return. Debates over ethnic, religious, and national criteria intersect with concepts invoked in documents like the Balfour Declaration and the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine.

History

Origins trace to ancient Near Eastern cultures and kingdoms such as Israel (United Monarchy) and Kingdom of Judah with archaeological and textual records including the Hebrew Bible and inscriptions from Mesopotamia. Exilic periods followed the Assyrian conquest of Israel and the Babylonian captivity; return movements involved figures like Ezra and events such as the construction under Herod the Great in Second Temple period. Roman-era upheavals included the Great Jewish Revolt (66–73 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt, leading to dispersal and the development of diasporic centers in Alexandria, Antioch, and later Rome. Medieval history features communities under Islamic Golden Age governments in Cordoba and Baghdad, and under Byzantine Empire rule; later European experiences included the expulsions from England, France, and Spain and the precarious status in Poland and the Russian Empire. Modern history encompasses emancipation debates in the French Revolution, antisemitic episodes culminating in the Holocaust, the establishment of State of Israel (1948) and subsequent conflicts like the Arab–Israeli conflict, as well as migrations to the United States, Argentina, and elsewhere.

Beliefs and Practices

Core religious literature includes the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, and legal codes such as the Shulchan Aruch. Central theological themes involve covenantal concepts tied to figures like Moses and observances codified in the Sabbath and dietary laws termed kashrut, with legal adjudication in bodies like the Beth Din. Ritual life features life-cycle events conducted with authorities such as the Rabbi and rituals at institutions like the Synagogue; liturgical traditions include prayer books such as the Siddur and holiday observances for Passover, Yom Kippur, and Hanukkah. Mystical streams developed texts like the Zohar associated with Kabbalah, while ethical teachings draw on works such as Pirkei Avot and medieval philosophers like Maimonides.

Denominations and Movements

Diversity includes movements historically rooted in geographic and intellectual centers: Orthodox Judaism with subgroups like Haredi Judaism; modern developments such as Conservative Judaism (known also as Masorti) and Reform Judaism that emerged in 19th-century Germany; and contemporary progressive currents like Reconstructionist Judaism. Other traditions encompass communities such as Sephardi Jews and Ashkenazi Jews with distinct ritual rites (nusach) and communal institutions like the Ashkenazi Chief Rabbinate in Poland (historical) and the Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue. Nationalist and political movements include Zionism in its various strains (e.g., socialist Labor Zionism, religious Religious Zionism), as well as non-Zionist and anti-Zionist groups. Communities such as the Beta Israel of Ethiopia and the Bene Israel of India reflect localized development and later integration processes including migrations facilitated by operations like Operation Moses.

Culture, Language, and Identity

Cultural life has produced literature, philosophy, and arts across languages such as Hebrew language, Yiddish, Ladino, and Judeo-Arabic. Literary figures range from medieval poets like Saadia Gaon and Solomon ibn Gabirol to modern authors such as Franz Kafka, Isaac Bashevis Singer, Shaul Tchernichovsky, and Amos Oz. Musical traditions include liturgical modes like nusach and secular forms influenced by regional genres in places like Klezmer scenes in Eastern Europe. Intellectual institutions include Yeshiva University, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Identity debates engage concepts articulated by thinkers like Theodor Herzl and Hannah Arendt, and are expressed in communal organizations such as World Jewish Congress and American Jewish Committee.

Demographics and Distribution

Populations are concentrated in modern states such as the State of Israel and the United States, with significant communities historically in France, Canada, United Kingdom, Russia, Argentina, and South Africa. Demographic trends have been influenced by events including the Holocaust, postwar migrations like those to New York City and Buenos Aires, and aliyah waves to Israel after episodes such as the Six-Day War. Census, survey, and communal studies by organizations such as the Pew Research Center and national statistical bureaus track variables including denominational affiliation and geographic distribution. Contemporary challenges include aging populations in some regions, emigration pressures tied to conflicts like the Yom Kippur War (1973), and cultural transmission in diasporic centers such as Brooklyn and Marais (Paris).

Category:Ethnic groups