Iraqi Campaign (2003–2011)

Iraqi Campaign (2003–2011)
Conflict	Iraqi Campaign (2003–2011)
Partof	War on Terror
Date	March 20, 2003 – December 18, 2011
Place	Iraq, Persian Gulf
Result	Coalition victory declared; transfer of sovereignty to Iraq; long-term political fragmentation
Combatant1	United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Poland, Denmark, Spain (until 2004), Italy, Romania, South Korea, Japan, Canada (logistical), NATO (later roles)
Combatant2	Iraq, Ba'ath Party, Iraqi Army (pre-2003), later Iraqi insurgency, Al-Qaeda in Iraq, Mahdi Army, Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
Commander1	George W. Bush, Donald Rumsfeld, Tommy Franks, John Abizaid, David Petraeus, Brett McGurk
Commander2	Saddam Hussein, Qusay Hussein, Uday Hussein, Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, Muqtada al-Sadr, Ibrahim al-Jaafari

Iraqi Campaign (2003–2011) The Iraqi Campaign (2003–2011) was a multinational military intervention led primarily by the United States and the United Kingdom that removed Saddam Hussein from power, dismantled the Ba'ath Party regime, and triggered protracted conflict involving insurgents, sectarian militias, and transnational jihadist groups. The campaign encompassed the 2003 invasion of Iraq, an extended occupation of Iraq, the rise of Al-Qaeda in Iraq and later Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, a 2007–2008 U.S. troop "surge", and the eventual withdrawal of U.S. forces by December 2011.

Background and causes

The campaign's origins were framed by the aftermath of the Gulf War and the 1991 uprisings in Iraq, ongoing United Nations Security Council sanctions, and disputes over United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission inspections. Post-9/11 War on Terror policy under George W. Bush and allegations that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction—including assertions about Iraqi chemical weapons and potential links to Al-Qaeda—drove the 2002 Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution and diplomatic rifts with France, Germany, and Russia. Key policymakers such as Dick Cheney, Donald Rumsfeld, Colin Powell, and Tony Blair advocated intervention, while critics including Hans Blix and Kofi Annan urged restraint.

Initial invasion and major combat operations (2003)

On March 20, 2003, the coalition initiated Operation Iraqi Freedom with air campaign strikes and combined-arms advances by V Corps and I Marine Expeditionary Force, culminating in the capture of Baghdad in April. Major operations included the Battle of Nasiriyah, the Battle of Basra (2003), and the Battle of Fallujah (2004) follow-ups; key personalities were Tommy Franks, David Petraeus, and Iraqi regime figures Saddam Hussein and his sons Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein. The collapse of the Iraqi Army (pre-2003) and the disbanding of the Iraqi Civil Service precipitated widespread looting and the emergence of armed resistance.

Occupation, insurgency, and civil conflict (2003–2007)

Following Coalition Provisional Authority rule under Paul Bremer, political reconstruction efforts including the Iraqi Governing Council and the 2005 Iraqi parliamentary election confronted an increasingly violent insurgency combining former regime loyalists, foreign fighters, and sectarian militias. Prominent insurgent organizations included Jaysh al-Mahdi (the Mahdi Army), Al-Qaeda in Iraq led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, and the Sunni insurgency in Iraq. Sectarian violence between Shia and Sunni Islam communities intensified, exemplified by the 2006–2007 sectarian violence and the Battle of Amarah. International responses involved Human Rights Watch, International Committee of the Red Cross, and debates at the United Nations Security Council.

Surge and counterinsurgency efforts (2007–2008)

In 2007 the United States implemented the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 under President George W. Bush and General David Petraeus, pairing increased troop levels with a renewed counterinsurgency doctrine influenced by doctrine such as the FM 3-24 manual and ideas from thinkers like John Nagl. Operations targeted Al-Qaeda in Iraq and militias including Mahdi Army elements during operations like Operation Phantom Phoenix and the Second Battle of Fallujah. Political reconciliation attempts involved leaders such as Nouri al-Maliki, Iyad Allawi, and Massoud Barzani, while regional actors including Iran and Syria exerted influence through proxies and diplomacy.

Withdrawal of U.S. forces and transition to Iraqi control (2009–2011)

After the 2008 Status of Forces Agreement and the 2009 U.S. troop withdrawal from Iraqi cities, the United States began transferring security responsibilities to the Iraqi Armed Forces and the Iraqi Police. The 2010 Iraqi parliamentary election produced contested results, strengthening Nouri al-Maliki's premiership amid tensions with Iraqi Kurdistan's leadership including Masoud Barzani and Jalal Talabani. Negotiations between Barack Obama's administration and Baghdad over a residual force failed, and the final U.S. combat brigades departed in 2011, with the last U.S. troops leaving on December 18, 2011, ending the large-scale American presence.

Humanitarian and societal impact

The campaign precipitated mass displacement, with millions of internally displaced persons and refugees seeking asylum in Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey, and attracted humanitarian organizations such as United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and International Rescue Committee. Civilian casualty estimates were contested by studies from The Lancet, Iraq Body Count, and Johns Hopkins University-affiliated researchers. Damage to cultural heritage included looting of the National Museum of Iraq and threats to Ashur, while public health crises involved outbreaks of cholera and strain on Baghdad hospitals. The campaign influenced global energy markets, affecting OPEC dynamics and oil infrastructure like the Basrah Oil Terminal.

Legacy, legal issues, and historical assessment

The campaign prompted extensive legal and historiographical debates over the legality of preemptive intervention under the United Nations Charter, the role of intelligence community assessments from institutions like the Central Intelligence Agency and MI6, and allegations of war crimes investigated by organizations such as Amnesty International and International Criminal Court advocates. Political legacies impacted United States foreign policy, debates within the Labour Party and Conservative Party, and regional realignments involving Iran and Turkey. The emergence of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in subsequent years spurred renewed military interventions including Operation Inherent Resolve. Historians debate outcomes in works by scholars such as Andrew J. Bacevich, Noam Chomsky, Thomas P. M. Barnett, and Rajiv Chandrasekaran, assessing costs, lessons for counterinsurgency, and implications for international norms.

Category:Iraq War