Invasion of Poland
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| Invasion of Poland | |
|---|---|
| Conflict | Invasion of Poland |
| Partof | World War II |
| Date | 1–6 September 1939; follow-on operations through October 1939 |
| Place | Poland, West Prussia, Silesia, East Prussia |
| Result | Division of the Second Polish Republic between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union; occupation |
| Combatant1 | Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany; Slovakia (1939) |
| Combatant2 | Poland |
| Commander1 | Heinrich von Gloeden; Walther von Brauchitsch; Gerd von Rundstedt; Franz Halder; Fedor von Bock |
| Commander2 | Edward Rydz-Śmigły; Władysław Sikorski; Tadeusz Kutrzeba; Józef Piłsudski (legacy) |
Invasion of Poland The Invasion of Poland was the 1939 campaign that triggered World War II in Europe when Nazi Germany attacked the Second Polish Republic. The campaign involved coordinated operations by the Wehrmacht, support from SS formations, and later intervention by the Soviet Union after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The fighting produced rapid territorial changes, large civilian displacement, and set patterns replicated in the Blitzkrieg campaigns of 1940.
Background and Prelude
In the late 1930s tensions among Nazi Germany, the United Kingdom, the France, and the Second Polish Republic rose over territorial disputes stemming from the Treaty of Versailles, the Polish Corridor, and the status of Danzig (the Free City of Danzig). Adolf Hitler pursued revisionist policy supported by Hermann Göring, Joachim von Ribbentrop, and the Nazi Party leadership, while Józef Beck and other Polish leaders sought security guarantees from London and Paris. Diplomatic maneuvering included the Anglo-Polish military alliance, the Franco-Polish alliance, and the secret protocols of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact negotiated by Vyacheslav Molotov and Joachim von Ribbentrop, which divided spheres of influence in Eastern Europe between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union.
Invasion (September 1939)
On 1 September 1939 the Wehrmacht launched a multi-pronged assault across the western border of Poland involving formations from Army Group North, Army Group South, and Army Group C supported by Luftwaffe airpower commanded by Hermann Göring and Albert Kesselring. Initial operations included the Battle of Westerplatte, the Battle of Mława, the Battle of the Bzura, the Siege of Warsaw, and actions in Pomerania and Silesia; Polish resistance led by commanders such as Tadeusz Kutrzeba and Edward Rydz-Śmigły fought against armored spearheads under generals like Gerd von Rundstedt and Fedor von Bock. Following the fall of Polish defenses, the Soviet Union invaded from the east on 17 September after diplomatic moves by Joseph Stalin and military orders from the Red Army high command, enabling Heinrich Himmler and other Nazi leaders to consolidate control.
Military Operations and Campaigns
German operations emphasized rapid armored thrusts influenced by concepts developed by Erich von Manstein and Heinz Guderian, employing panzer divisions, motorized infantry, and Luftwaffe close air support; key engagements included the Battle of Tuchola Forest, the Battle of the Vistula River, and the Lwów (Lviv). Polish forces conducted counterattacks in the Bzura Offensive led by Tadeusz Kutrzeba and defensive stands at Modlin Fortress and Hel Peninsula under commanders such as Władysław Sikorski and Kazimierz Fabrycy. Naval clashes involved the Polish Navy ships ORP Błyskawica, ORP Grom, and the Battle of the Danzig Bay against the Kriegsmarine and German U-boat activity; air engagements pitted the Polish Air Force's PZL P.11 and PZL P.23 Karaś against Luftwaffe fighters and bombers including the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and the Heinkel He 111.
Occupation, Administration, and Atrocities
Following conquest, Nazi Germany incorporated western and central Polish territories into the Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia and the General Government administered by Hans Frank, while the Soviet Union annexed eastern Polish territories under NKVD and foreign policy directives. Occupation policies involved forced displacement, demographic engineering, and systematic abuses carried out by institutions including the SS, Gestapo, and the Einsatzgruppen with complicit actions by collaborator administrations. Atrocities such as the Intelligenzaktion, the Sonderaktion Krakau, massacres in Katyń (attributable to NKVD operations in 1940), and repression of Polish Jews foreshadowed the Holocaust; prisoners were interned in camps and prisons including Auschwitz (state), Stutthof, and Dulag transit camps, with widespread cultural plunder involving entities like Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce.
International Reaction and Consequences
The United Kingdom and France declared war on Nazi Germany on 3 September 1939 pursuant to treaties with Poland and mobilized forces including the British Expeditionary Force and the French First Army, but major ground offensives such as the Phoney War produced limited relief for Poland. Diplomatic repercussions included the breakdown of League of Nations mechanisms, shifts in alliances affecting Italy, Japan, and Turkey, and strategic calculations by United States policymakers and the Washington Naval Treaty legacy; the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact revelations strained relations and prompted debates in London and Paris over intervention strategies. The partition of Polish territory influenced subsequent campaigns in Scandinavia, the Low Countries, and ultimately the Battle of France.
Aftermath and Legacy
The 1939 campaign resulted in the collapse of the Second Polish Republic as a sovereign state, the emergence of the Polish government-in-exile in France and later London, and the formation of resistance movements including the Home Army (Armia Krajowa) and Polish Underground State. Legal and moral legacies included postwar prosecutions at the Nuremberg Trials, documentation preserved by institutions like the International Committee of the Red Cross and historians at the Institute of National Remembrance, and enduring memory in works by authors such as Norman Davies and Richard J. Evans. Commemorations and historiography continue in Warsaw, Kraków, and international museums, while the invasion's strategic lessons influenced Cold War boundaries at the Yalta Conference and NATO policies involving West Germany and Poland.