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| Interbellum | |
|---|---|
| Name | Interbellum |
| Start | 1918 |
| End | 1939 |
Interbellum The term designates the period between World War I and World War II commonly framed from 1918 to 1939, linking Paris Peace Conference, Treaty of Versailles, League of Nations, Great Depression, Nazi Party and Soviet Union in a single historical span. It encompasses diplomatic episodes such as the Kellogg–Briand Pact, military episodes involving the Weimar Republic and Imperial Japan, and cultural currents connected to Modernism, Surrealism, Bauhaus and Harlem Renaissance. Scholars relate the period to transitions seen in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, the consequences of the Treaty of Trianon, the emergence of the Fascist Italy regime, and geopolitical shifts involving United States foreign policy and the United Kingdom.
The label derives from Latin roots comparable to terms used in diplomatic lexicons like those at the Congress of Vienna and in writings by figures such as Romain Rolland and Paul Valéry, and it became common in historiography alongside references to Interwar period analyses, E. H. Carr essays, George F. Kennan briefs, and debates over the Munich Agreement. Linguistic adoption in English and other languages paralleled scholarly usage in journals addressing Versailles Treaty consequences, debates over Self-determination associated with Woodrow Wilson, and commentary by commentators like Arnold J. Toynbee and Winston Churchill. The term is used in comparative studies alongside periodizations for the Restoration (France), the Belle Époque, and post-Napoleonic Wars arrangements.
The chronology opens with armistices culminating in events such as the Armistice of 11 November 1918, the Paris Peace Conference, and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles and the Saint-Germain-en-Laye; continues through crises including the Polish–Soviet War, the Irish War of Independence, the Spanish Civil War, and the Second Sino-Japanese War; and culminates with the Invasion of Poland (1939) and declarations by the United Kingdom and France. Intervening milestones involve the founding of the League of Nations, the implementation of the Dawes Plan, the later Young Plan, the onset of the Great Depression (1929), and treaties such as the Locarno Treaties and the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. Regional adjustments included the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the redrawing of borders affecting Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, and mandates overseen by the League of Nations like Iraq and Palestine.
European lines of force shifted with the collapse of empires like the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Russian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire and with the emergence of states including Czechoslovakia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Political volatility featured contested episodes such as the Kapp Putsch, the rise of the Weimar Republic, the consolidation of Benito Mussolini's rule in Italy, the ascent of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in Germany, and the Spanish Civil War led by the Nationalists against the Second Spanish Republic. Diplomatic rearrangements involved the Little Entente, the Soviet Union's westward policies, and pacts such as the Stresa Front while localized conflicts included the Austro-French tensions and the Albanian–Yugoslav disputes.
Statecraft in the period comprised initiatives like the League of Nations' mandates system, disarmament efforts at the Geneva Disarmament Conference, bilateral accords exemplified by the Locarno Treaties, and strategic pacts such as the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance, the Anglo-Italian Agreement (1938), and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Great-power interactions involved the United States's Washington Naval Conference (1921–22), French security policy toward Germany, the Soviet Union's diplomatic recognition episodes, and the League of Nations' attempts to mediate crises like the Manchurian Crisis and the Abyssinia Crisis. Internal politics saw the spread of ideologies via parties such as the Communist International, the Fascist Party (Italy), the Nazi Party, and movements connected to figures like Leon Trotsky, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Gabriele D'Annunzio, and Éamon de Valera.
Economic upheavals included hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic, stabilization plans like the Dawes Plan and Young Plan, the global contraction associated with the Great Depression (1929), and recovery efforts such as Keynesian-influenced policies debated in financial centers like London and New York City. Social transformations involved urbanization in metropolises such as Paris, Berlin, Moscow, and Buenos Aires, demographic shifts after the Spanish flu pandemic, labor movements linked to the International Labour Organization, and welfare legislation enacted in states including Sweden and Norway. Migration flows affected colonies administered by the British Empire, the French Colonial Empire, and mandates like Iraq; agrarian crises impacted regions such as Poland and Hungary.
Artistic innovation featured movements like Dada, Surrealism, Expressionism, Modernism, Art Deco, and institutions such as the Bauhaus and the Royal Academy of Arts. Literary scenes involved authors such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, Franz Kafka, Thomas Mann, Ernest Hemingway, Marcel Proust, and George Orwell while musical experiments included composers like Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, Béla Bartók, and jazz developments in the Harlem Renaissance and Chicago. Film and media advanced through studios and figures like UFA (company), Charlie Chaplin, Sergei Eisenstein, Fritz Lang, and cinematic works including Metropolis and Battleship Potemkin. Intellectual debates engaged philosophers and theorists such as Max Weber, Antonio Gramsci, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, and Bertrand Russell.
Historiographical interpretations range from deterministic frameworks emphasizing the Treaty of Versailles and Great Depression (1929) to revisionist accounts centering on agency in the Soviet Union, United States, and United Kingdom and on transnational networks like the Communist International and the League of Nations. Debates invoke scholars such as A. J. P. Taylor, E. H. Carr, Eric Hobsbawm, Christopher Hill, John Maynard Keynes, and Niall Ferguson and engage sources including diplomatic archives from Berlin, Paris, Moscow, London, and Washington, D.C.. The period's legacy informs analyses of later conflicts such as the Cold War, postwar institutions like the United Nations, regional integrations like the European Coal and Steel Community, and cultural continuities in modernist and popular genres.