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| Hwangseong | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hwangseong |
| Settlement type | Historical capital |
| Established | 5th century? |
Hwangseong
Hwangseong was an ancient Korean capital and provincial center notable in sources from the Three Kingdoms period through the Unified Silla and Goryeo eras. Primary chronicles, archaeological reports, and classical maps place Hwangseong at the intersection of routes linking major polities and ritual centers, and it appears in records alongside sites such as Gyeongju, Baekje, Silla, Gojoseon, Balhae, and Later Baekje. Its mention in diplomatic correspondence, military campaigns, and religious texts situates it among locations like Pyongyang, Seoul, Kaesong, Andong, and Chungju.
Early etymological discussions connect the name to Sino-Korean glosses used in Samguk Sagi, Samguk Yusa, and Goryeosa, as well as to toponyms recorded in Tang dynasty chronicles and Old Japanese documents. Scholars referencing Kim Bu-sik, Iryeon, Jeong Mong-ju, and Choe Chiwon compare Hwangseong to names in inscriptions such as the Gwanggaeto Stele, Silla Royal Annals, and Jikji. Linguists influenced by work from Ninomiya Sakae, Vasily Bartlett, Alexander Vovin, and William Elliot Griffis debate phonological correspondences with Middle Chinese reconstructions, Old Korean morphemes, and parallels in Manchu and Mongolian glosses.
Chronicles associate Hwangseong with events tied to rulers like King Munmu, Queen Seondeok, King Jinheung, King Gyeongsun, and military figures including Gyeon Hwon, Wang Geon, Kim Yushin, and Eulji Mundeok. It features in narratives concerning the Battle of Hwangsanbeol, Siege of Gyeongju, Campaigns of Gwanggaeto the Great, and interactions with Tang dynasty forces, Khitan raids, and Jurchen incursions. Diplomatic links appear in records involving Emperor Taizong of Tang, Emperor Gaozong of Tang, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Song dynasty envoys, and later Yuan dynasty missions. Literary mentions occur in poems by Kim Sowol, Yi Gyubo, Jeong Cheol, Choe Chiwon, and Seo Geo-jeong.
Administrative sources place Hwangseong in lists alongside Hansung, Wansan, Sabi, Ungjin, and Sungju as a national seat, provincial prefecture, or military command center under officials such as Daemogwan, Jwa’jang, and Sadaeju. Edicts in the Goryeo bureaucracy and legal codes like the Gyeongguk Daejeon reference regional posts, taxation districts, and cadastral surveys that include Hwangseong alongside Jeolla, Gyeongsang, Chungcheong, Gangwon, and Hamgyong provinces. Courts and relay stations tied to envoys such as those from Balhae and merchants from Song dynasty ports underscore its role with agencies like the Sogamun and military offices comparable to Dojejo.
Religious texts and temple registries link Hwangseong with Buddhist establishments similar to Hwangnyongsa, Bulguksa, Beopjusa, Jingwansa, and Hwaeomsa; Confucian academies like Gukhak and Seowon; and shamanic rites recorded in Samguk Yusa and folk histories mentioning figures such as Wonhyo, Uisang, Hyegwan, Seol Chong, and Choe Chiwon. It appears in pilgrimage routes alongside Mount Namsan, Mount Jiri, Mount Odaesan, and Mount Taebaek, and in calendrical observances tied to Dano, Seollal, Chuseok, and royal rituals resembling those at Silla and Goryeo courts. Artistic production attributed to workshops connected with Goryeo celadon and Buddhist sculpture traditions mentions artisans who worked for patrons like King Munjong and King Seongjong.
Archaeologists compare excavation layers at sites attributed to Hwangseong with those at Gyeongju National Museum, Buyeo National Museum, National Museum of Korea, and provincial museums in Chungcheong and Gyeongsang. Material culture includes roof tiles similar to finds at Anapji, fortress walls comparable to those at Hwaseong Fortress, kilns akin to Buncheong, and tomb typologies paralleling Cheonmachong and Tomb of King Muryeong. Urban layout evidence recalls grid patterns seen at Kaesong, street drainage like Suwon, and palace foundations analogous to Goryeo Palace Site remains. Carbon dating of timber posts, radiocarbon samples, and dendrochronology studies by teams including researchers from Korean Archaeological Society, Seoul National University, Yonsei University, and Korea Heritage Foundation refine occupational phases alongside ceramic typologies tied to Three Kingdoms pottery.
Trade records and port registries link Hwangseong to commerce with Silla hinterlands, Tang dynasty markets, Song dynasty merchants, and barter networks reaching Japan, Liao dynasty, and Goryeo capitals. Goods included rice and cereals noted in tax ledgers similar to those in Joseon documents, ironware produced in workshops akin to those in Andong and Gimhae, salt from coastal salterns like Shinan, textiles comparable to Gojoseon period fragments, and luxury imports such as Tang sancai and Chinese celadon. Population estimates derive from household registrations analogous to ho-gye lists, census returns found in Goryeosa, and comparative demography with urban centers like Gyeongju, Pyongyang, and Kaesong.
Modern historians, preservationists, and cultural institutions reference Hwangseong in studies by Kim Byung-jo, Park Young-sook, Choi Byung-jae, and international collaborations with UNESCO assessments and projects by the Korean Cultural Heritage Administration and Asia Foundation. Toponymic traces influence place names near Gyeongju, Daegu, Busan, Incheon, and Seoul in scholarly debates, while museums such as the National Museum of Korea and Gyeongju National Museum curate artifacts attributed to its sphere. Hwangseong features in modern media about Korean history, in documentaries produced by KBS, EBS, and National Geographic, and in academic curricula at Seoul National University, Korea University, and Yonsei University.
Category:Historical capitals in Korea