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| History of Mexico 1821–1855 | |
|---|---|
| Name | Mexico (1821–1855) |
| Caption | Flag used during the First Mexican Empire and early republic |
| Start | 1821 |
| End | 1855 |
| Notable figures | Agustín de Iturbide, Vicente Guerrero, Antonio López de Santa Anna, Guadalupe Victoria, Lucas Alamán, Valentín Gómez Farías, Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga, Nicolás Bravo, Miguel Barragán |
History of Mexico 1821–1855 The period 1821–1855 in Mexico spans the collapse of colonial rule, the brief First Mexican Empire, the turbulent early Mexican Republic, regional uprisings, the loss of northern territories, and political realignment culminating in the Plan of Ayutla that ended the long dominance of Antonio López de Santa Anna. Political leadership rotated among military caudillos, conservative oligarchs, and liberal reformers, while foreign pressures from United States–Mexico relations and European powers reshaped territorial and diplomatic outcomes.
Following the Plan of Iguala and the entrance of the Army of the Three Guarantees into Mexico City, the Treaty of Córdoba formalized independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, elevating leaders such as Agustín de Iturbide and insurgent commanders like Vicente Guerrero. The post-independence interregnum saw the formation of provisional bodies including the Regency of the First Mexican Empire and the Congress of Chilpancingo's successor assemblies, while factions aligned with figures such as José María Morelos's allies contested monarchical plans. Economic dislocation after the Peninsular War and fiscal collapse led elites like Lucas Alamán to debate foreign monarchy proposals and domestic constitutional options before the 1824 promulgation of the Constitution of 1824.
Proclaimed Emperor in 1822, Agustín de Iturbide attempted to consolidate authority through imperial titulature and military patronage, confronting republican opponents including Antonio López de Santa Anna and liberal intellectuals from the York Rite and Yorkino lodges. Fiscal crisis, royalist resistance, and military revolts such as the Plan of Casa Mata weakened the empire; by 1823 Iturbide abdicated and went into exile, leading to the dissolution of imperial institutions and the restoration of constituent congresses that debated federalism versus centralism.
The Constitution of 1824 established a federal republic combining states like New Spain's successor entities and provinces such as Jalisco and Yucatán, elevating presidents such as Guadalupe Victoria and Vicente Guerrero. Political life polarized between conservative Centralists backed by landowning elites and clergy allied with figures like Lucas Alamán, and liberal Federalists supported by local caudillos including Santa Anna in earlier phases and intellectuals linked to the liberal movement. Key crises included the Plan of Jalapa, the 1828 electoral conflict that unseated Vicente Guerrero in favor of Álvaro Obregón-era rivals (note: Obregón later), and the 1829 Spanish attempt to reconquer Mexico culminating in the defense of Veracruz.
Rising conservative influence produced constitutional reform culminating in the Siete Leyes of 1835–1836, which replaced federal federalism with a centralist Centralist Republic of Mexico structure and converted states into departments administered by appointed governors. Proponents such as Lucas Alamán and centralist military leaders sought to strengthen executive authority, while opponents including regional leaders from Coahuila y Tejas and Tamaulipas resisted the dissolution of state autonomy. The Siete Leyes intensified tensions that precipitated regional secessions and military confrontations.
Centralist policies triggered secessionist declarations and short-lived republics, including the Republic of Yucatán and the Republic of Texas's neighboring tensions, with insurgents like Miguel Barragán and conservative governors clashing with federalist caudillos such as Nicolás Bravo. Rebellions in Tabasco, Nuevo León, and Sinaloa reflected contestation over fiscal control, customs revenues, and military appointments; foreign traders and British commercial interests in Yucatán complicated diplomatic resolutions.
Anglo-American colonization under empresarios like Stephen F. Austin and clashes over Mexican laws including slavery bans and immigration controls led to the Texas Revolution (1835–1836), featuring engagements at the Alamo and the Battle of San Jacinto. Defeat at San Jacinto forced Mexican retreat and the capture of Antonio López de Santa Anna, precipitating the de facto independence of Republic of Texas and ongoing diplomatic disputes over recognition, borders, and the Treaty of Velasco which the Mexican government later repudiated, setting the stage for recurring frontier conflicts.
Throughout the 1840s, Mexico faced mounting pressures from the United States including annexation of Texas (1845) and diplomatic disputes over the Rio Grande vs. Nueces River boundary, while internal instability under presidents such as José Joaquín de Herrera and Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga weakened resistance. The Manifest Destiny rhetoric and expansionist politics of figures like James K. Polk intersected with Mexican political fragmentation, military defeats, and financial insolvency, culminating in the outbreak of the Mexican–American War in 1846, after border skirmishes and failed negotiations including the attempted purchase of Mexican territories.
By the mid-1850s, repeated returns to power by Antonio López de Santa Anna, fiscal exactions, and conservative centralist restorations provoked liberal conspiracies and the pronunciamiento known as the Plan of Ayutla in 1854, led by liberals such as Juan Álvarez and Ignacio Comonfort. The Ayutla revolt capitalized on regional discontent in Guerrero, Michoacán, and Puebla, culminating in Santa Anna's ouster in 1855 and the convening of a constituent assembly that opened the path to the Reform War era and the liberal reforms later codified in the Ley Juárez and Ley Lerdo reforms of the late 1850s.