Herbarium

Herbarium
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Name	Herbarium
Caption	Dried plant specimens mounted on sheets
Established	Varies by institution
Type	Scientific collection
Curator	Botanists, taxonomists, collection managers
Location	Botanical gardens, universities, museums

Herbarium A herbarium is a repository for preserved plant specimens used for scientific study, curation, and reference. Originating in early modern collections associated with cabinets of curiosity, herbaria now exist in institutions such as the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the New York Botanical Garden, the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle (France), and the Smithsonian Institution; they support research in taxonomy, biogeography, and conservation. Major historical figures and institutions—like Carl Linnaeus, the Natural History Museum, London, the Royal Society, and the Prussian Academy of Sciences—shaped development of large institutional collections that underpin modern floristic work.

History

Herbarium practice evolved from Renaissance collectors linked to patrons such as Cosimo de' Medici and scientific networks tied to explorers like James Cook, Alexander von Humboldt, and Joseph Banks. Systematic plant preservation advanced with contributions by Carl Linnaeus, whose exchange of specimens influenced collections at the University of Uppsala, the University of Cambridge, and the University of Oxford. Colonial-era expeditions funded by the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company dispersed specimens to institutions including the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, and the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Nineteenth-century botanists—such as Joseph Dalton Hooker, George Bentham, and Asa Gray—expanded taxonomic frameworks and consolidated herbaria at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the Harvard University Herbaria, and the Field Museum. Twentieth-century developments at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History (France), and regional universities formalized curation standards and international exchange under organizations like the International Association for Plant Taxonomy.

Purpose and Uses

Herbaria serve taxonomy and nomenclature for flora overseen by bodies such as the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and support applied studies in institutions including the Food and Agriculture Organization and the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Specimens underpin type designation by taxonomists affiliated with museums such as the Natural History Museum, London and universities like Harvard University, enabling verification of names used in works by authors publishing in journals like Taxon and Phytotaxa. Collections inform floristic inventories for regions covered by projects at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the New York Botanical Garden, and national herbaria such as the United States National Herbarium. They also provide baseline data for climate-change analyses used by research groups at the University of California, Berkeley, University of Oxford, and Max Planck Society.

Collection and Specimen Preparation

Field collecting follows permits from authorities such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and national agencies like the United States Fish and Wildlife Service or the Australian Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. Botanists from institutions including the Missouri Botanical Garden, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, and the Kew employ presses, drying ovens, and paper from suppliers used by collectors like David Douglas and Ernst Haeckel. Specimens are mounted on archival sheets, labeled with locality and collector data linked to place names such as Amazon River, Andes, Himalayas, Sahara Desert, and islands like Galápagos Islands or Madagascar. Voucher specimens support ecological research in universities such as Stanford University, Yale University, and University of Tokyo and bioprospecting collaborations with organizations like the World Health Organization or pharmaceutical partners.

Organization and Curation

Collections are curated by staff at institutions like the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Smithsonian Institution, and the Natural History Museum, London using classification systems influenced by authorities such as Augustin Pyramus de Candolle, George Bentham, and modern treatments in databases maintained by the Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Specimens are accessioned, cataloged, and stored in cabinets following standards from bodies like the International Organization for Standardization and curated by specialists from universities including University of Michigan and University of California, Los Angeles. Loans and exchanges occur between herbaria such as Harvard University Herbaria, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle (France), and national museums, facilitated by networks like the Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities.

Digitization and Databasing

Digitization initiatives spearheaded by organizations such as the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, iDigBio, and the Biodiversity Heritage Library have led institutions like Kew, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Smithsonian Institution to image specimens and transcribe labels. Databasing links specimens to georeferenced localities (e.g., Yellowstone National Park, Siberia, Patagonia) and integrates with platforms used by researchers at University of Copenhagen, Australian National University, and the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Digitized collections support large-scale analyses by consortia including the Paleobiology Database and climate groups at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Research and Education

Herbaria underpin monographic work by taxonomists like Robert Brown and contemporary researchers publishing in outlets such as Nature and Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. They support teaching programs at universities including University of California, Davis, University of British Columbia, University of Manchester, and outreach by botanical gardens such as Chicago Botanic Garden and Missouri Botanical Garden. Collaborative projects with museums—Field Museum and Natural History Museum, London—and conservation NGOs like Conservation International and World Wide Fund for Nature use herbarium data for species assessments and red-listing with the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Conservation and Legal Issues

Collections intersect with international agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Nagoya Protocol and national laws administered by agencies like the United States Fish and Wildlife Service and the European Commission. Repatriation, access and benefit-sharing, and permits involve stakeholders including indigenous groups, universities like University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, and governmental bodies such as the Ministry of Environment (Japan). Conservation priorities managed by institutions like Kew, the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, and Botanic Gardens Conservation International employ herbarium data for ex situ and in situ strategies addressing threats identified by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.

Category:Botanical collections