Hawthorne Works
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| Hawthorne Works | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hawthorne Works |
| Location | Cicero, Illinois |
| Established | 1905 |
| Closed | 1983 |
| Industry | Electrical manufacturing |
| Parent | Western Electric |
Hawthorne Works was a large industrial complex in Cicero, Illinois, established by Western Electric in 1905 as a manufacturing and research center for telephone and electrical equipment. The plant became notable for the Hawthorne experiments, a series of industrial studies in the 1920s and 1930s that influenced industrial psychology, human relations movement, and labor-management thinking in the United States. Over several decades the site employed thousands of workers and intersected with organizations such as AT&T, Bell Laboratories, and unions including the CIO and International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. The complex closed in 1983 amid deindustrialization trends affecting firms like General Electric, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, and RCA.
History
Hawthorne Works opened in 1905 under Western Electric ownership during the expansion of the Bell System and the era of trusts involving firms like American Telephone and Telegraph Company and New York Telephone Company. The plant expanded through World War I and World War II, contributing to war production alongside factories such as Bethlehem Steel and Crane Company, while collaborating with research entities like Bell Labs and National Defense Research Committee. Management at Hawthorne interacted with labor movements exemplified by the AFL and later the Congress of Industrial Organizations, while municipal and state actors including the Village of Cicero (Illinois) and Cook County influenced local planning. Postwar changes mirrored those at DuPont and Bethlehem Steel Corporation as automation and corporate restructuring altered operations, culminating in closure and site redevelopment similar to conversions seen at Pullman District and Kaiser Shipyards.
Facilities and Operations
The campus housed large assembly lines, machine shops, and testing laboratories akin to facilities at Bell Labs and Edison Laboratory, with specialized departments for switchboard manufacture, relay production, and cable assembly comparable to operations at AT&T Long Lines and Western Electric Hawthorne Works Distribution Center. The site included fabrication halls, metallurgical labs, and a research wing used by engineers trained in programs at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign, and Carnegie Mellon University. Logistics at Hawthorne mirrored industrial networks involving firms such as Pullman Company and Illinois Central Railroad for inbound materials and outbound shipments. Safety and industrial hygiene practices evolved through interactions with regulators like the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and standards bodies such as American National Standards Institute.
Hawthorne Experiments
The Hawthorne experiments conducted at the plant were supervised by researchers affiliated with Harvard University, Western Electric, and consultants connected to National Research Council projects; they examined productivity under changing illumination, rest breaks, and supervision, intersecting with theoretical work by figures associated with Elton Mayo, Fritz Roethlisberger, and William J. Dickson. These studies stimulated debates in fields represented by Columbia University and University of Chicago scholars and influenced practitioners at firms like Procter & Gamble and Ford Motor Company interested in human relations movement strategies. Critics from institutions such as Cornell University and Stanford University later challenged interpretations of causality and methodology, referencing later analyses by historians linked to Princeton University and Yale University. The experiments' legacy informed practices at corporations including General Motors and policy discussions within National Labor Relations Board forums.
Labor Relations and Workforce
Hawthorne Works employed a diverse workforce including recent immigrants, veterans of World War I, and women who entered industrial labor in numbers comparable to populations at Campbell Soup Company and Anheuser-Busch plants; workforce demographics reflected migration patterns studied by scholars at University of Michigan and Columbia University. Labor relations at the plant featured interactions with union organizers from International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, strikes and negotiations echoing disputes at Packard and Sudbury Basin facilities, and collective action evaluated by scholars from New School for Social Research and activists connected to Congress of Industrial Organizations. Management labor policy drew on practices from Taylorism proponents and later on alternative models from Human Relations School, while legal adjudication involved bodies such as the National Labor Relations Board and courts including the United States Court of Appeals.
Products and Technology
Hawthorne Works produced telephone switching equipment, relays, cords, and connectors integral to the Bell System infrastructure and comparable to product lines at Western Electric Hawthorne Works contemporaries; innovations paralleled work at Bell Telephone Laboratories, AT&T Long Lines, and manufacturers such as Siemens and Philips. The facility contributed to technology used in public networks that connected to systems like RCA Communications and military communications during World War II and the Korean War. Engineering at Hawthorne interfaced with standards from Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and manufacturing methods influenced by practices at General Electric and Westinghouse Electric Corporation, while materials science developments corresponded with research at DuPont and Dow Chemical Company.
Legacy and Influence
Hawthorne Works left a multifaceted legacy influencing industrial sociology, organizational behavior, and corporate practices at firms including IBM, Xerox, and Motorola. The Hawthorne studies became a staple in curricula at Harvard Business School, Wharton School, and London School of Economics, while local history projects by institutions such as Cicero Historical Society and the Chicago Historical Society documented the site. Urban redevelopment of the former complex followed patterns seen in Boston's Seaport District and New York's Meatpacking District, with adaptive reuse debates involving U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development policies. The site remains referenced in scholarship from universities including Princeton University, Yale University, and University of Chicago and in labor studies at Cornell University.