Graduate Record Examinations

Graduate Record Examinations
Educational Testing Service · Public domain · source
Name	Graduate Record Examinations
Acronym	GRE
Administered by	Educational Testing Service
Established	1936
Purpose	Admissions for graduate and business school
Regions	International

Graduate Record Examinations is a standardized test administered by the Educational Testing Service for admissions to graduate and professional programs. It evaluates verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and analytical writing skills and is used by institutions worldwide for selection and placement. The examination has evolved through historical reforms, psychometric research, and international expansion, and remains influential in admissions decisions for a wide range of disciplines and institutions.

History

The examination was created in 1936 by the Council of Graduate Schools and was later developed and administered by the Educational Testing Service, with influence from figures associated with Princeton University, Harvard University, University of Chicago, Columbia University, and Yale University. Early adoption by institutions such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, University of California, Berkeley, University of Michigan, and University of Pennsylvania shaped graduate selection practices. Major reforms occurred after critiques in the postwar era involving scholars from Johns Hopkins University, University of Oxford, University of Cambridge, London School of Economics, and University of Toronto. Subsequent legal and policy debates engaged actors including United States Department of Education, American Psychological Association, National Science Foundation, Carnegie Mellon University, and California Institute of Technology. Revisions in the 1990s and 2000s reflected research by psychometricians affiliated with Columbia University Teachers College, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, University of Wisconsin–Madison, University of Minnesota, and Pennsylvania State University.

Test Structure and Content

The examination comprises sections developed and validated by experts connected to institutions like Princeton University, University of Pennsylvania Wharton School, New York University Stern School of Business, London Business School, and INSEAD. Verbal Reasoning items draw on vocabulary and reading-comprehension models used in scholarship from Oxford University Press, Cambridge University Press, Routledge, Springer, and Sage Publications. Quantitative Reasoning reflects item formats rooted in mathematical pedagogy associated with Massachusetts Institute of Technology, California Institute of Technology, Imperial College London, ETH Zurich, and École Polytechnique. Analytical Writing prompts mirror argument-analysis tasks seen in work from Harvard Law School, Yale Law School, Stanford Law School, George Washington University Law School, and Columbia Law School. The computer-based adaptive scoring model was developed alongside research at Carnegie Mellon University, Princeton University, Cornell University, University of California, Los Angeles, and Duke University.

Scoring and Reporting

Scores are reported on scales informed by psychometric conventions promoted by organizations such as the American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education. Quantitative and Verbal Reasoning scores are typically reported in ranges analogous to norms maintained by universities including Harvard University, Yale University, Columbia University, University of Chicago, and New York University. Percentile ranks have been used in admissions deliberations at Stanford University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Princeton University, University of Oxford, and University of Cambridge. Score reporting policies have been shaped through consultation with bodies like Council of Graduate Schools, Association of American Universities, European University Association, Association of Commonwealth Universities, and International Association of Universities.

Preparation and Test-Taking Strategies

Preparation resources and strategies proliferated through publishers and institutions such as McGraw-Hill Education, Pearson Education, Kaplan, Inc., Princeton Review, and Barron's Educational Series, and through university programs at University of California, Berkeley Extension, New York University School of Professional Studies, University College London, Australian National University, and University of Toronto School of Continuing Studies. Test-taking strategies recommended by tutors associated with Harvard University, Stanford University, Columbia University, University of Michigan, and Northwestern University emphasize time management, question-type recognition, and analytical writing practice. Preparatory workshops have been organized in partnership with student organizations at Brown University, Duke University, University of Pennsylvania, University of Washington, and University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.

Reception, Criticism, and Validity Studies

The examination has been the subject of critique and validation research involving scholars and institutions including National Academy of Sciences, Brookings Institution, American Council on Education, Russell Sage Foundation, and Council on Higher Education Accreditation. Debates on predictive validity, fairness, and bias engaged researchers from University of California, Los Angeles, University of Texas at Austin, University of Michigan, Princeton University, and Harvard University as well as advocacy groups such as American Civil Liberties Union and National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Studies examining socioeconomic and demographic differentials cite analyses linked to National Bureau of Economic Research, Institute for Research on Poverty, Brookings Institution, Urban Institute, and Pew Research Center. Legal and policy challenges have involved courts and agencies including the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, United States Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, and regulatory reviews by European Commission committees.

International Administration and Accessibility

International test administration expanded through partnerships with regional test centers, consortia, and governments involving institutions such as British Council, University of Delhi, University of Cape Town, University of São Paulo, and Peking University. Accessibility accommodations have been developed in collaboration with organizations like World Health Organization, International Labour Organization, Royal National Institute of Blind People, National Federation of the Blind, and Disabled Students' Allowances programs at universities such as University of Sydney, University of Melbourne, University of Auckland, University of Pretoria, and McGill University.

Impact on Graduate Admissions and Outcomes

Admissions offices at flagship institutions including Harvard University, Stanford University, Princeton University, University of Chicago, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology incorporate scores alongside transcripts, letters of recommendation, and research experience from labs and centers such as Broad Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Max Planck Society, and French National Centre for Scientific Research. Empirical work on outcomes links GRE metrics to graduate completion, time-to-degree, and publication productivity in studies conducted by National Science Foundation, National Institutes of Health, Society for Research into Higher Education, Higher Education Funding Council for England, and European Research Council.

Category:Standardized tests