German Resistance

German Resistance
Unknown authorUnknown author Oberkommando der Wehrmacht · Public domain · source
Name	German Resistance
Caption	Memorial at the Bendlerblock, site of the 20 July 1944 plot
Period	1933–1945
Country	Germany
Notable	Claus von Stauffenberg, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Sophie Scholl, Kreisau Circle, Rosenstrasse protest

German Resistance

The term describes opposition within Germany and German-ruled territories to the Nazi Party regime of Adolf Hitler between the Machtergreifung of 1933 and the end of World War II in 1945. It encompassed military officers, conservative aristocrats, social democrats, communists, clergy, students, trade unionists, diplomats, and civil servants interacting with institutions like the Wehrmacht, Abwehr, Gestapo, Reichssicherheitshauptamt and organizations such as the Confessing Church and the White Rose.

Background and Origins

Opposition emerged from legacies of the Weimar Republic, the aftermath of the Treaty of Versailles, and conservative monarchist networks linked to the Prussian Army and the Junkers. Early resistance drew on figures from the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the Communist Party of Germany, and Catholic circles associated with the Center Party and institutions like the Vatican’s diplomatic contacts. The purge of institutions during the Night of the Long Knives and the passage of the Enabling Act of 1933 radicalized dissenters including members of the German Army (Wehrmacht) and diplomats tied to the Foreign Office. Intellectual currents from the Frankfurt School émigrés, the writings of Martin Niemöller, and networks around Carl Goerdeler shaped early coordination.

Key Groups and Movements

Conservative-military networks centered on the Kreisau Circle and plots involving the 20 July plotters brought together officers from the Heer and statesmen like Ludwig Beck, Erwin von Witzleben, and Henning von Tresckow. Ecclesiastical resistance featured the Confessing Church with leaders such as Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Martin Niemöller, plus Catholic activists linked to Bishop Clemens August Graf von Galen. Student resistance included the White Rose movement founded by Hans Scholl and Sophie Scholl with intellectual ties to Munich University. Leftist underground activity continued via remnants of the KPD and socialist networks from the SPD and trade unions associated with Hermann Rauschning and Otto Wels’s legacies. Diplomatic and intelligence dissent involved figures in the Abwehr like Canaris allies and diplomats such as Adam von Trott zu Solz and Ernst von Weizsäcker. Worker protests included the Rosenstrasse protest and local strikes influenced by trade union veterans from the Free Trade Unions.

Major Plots and Actions

Plots ranged from assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler—notably the 20 July plot led by Claus von Stauffenberg—to sabotage by Red Orchestra cells and clandestine publications like the White Rose leaflets. Military conspirators coordinated with political figures such as Carl Goerdeler and Ulrich von Hassell to plan governmental transitions involving the Allied powers post-coup. Clerical opposition manifested in sermons by Clemens August Graf von Galen against T4 euthanasia and Bonhoeffer’s involvement in the Abwehr-linked rescue efforts and contacts with the Allied control networks. Underground communist and socialist cells undertook strikes and espionage that connected to the Soviet Union and exile groups in Prague and London. Key actions included assassination plots on Heinrich Himmler and attempts to seize communications and transport hubs in Berlin, involving officers from the Großdeutschland Division and conspirators in the Bendlerblock.

Repression and Consequences

Repression intensified through institutions such as the Gestapo, the Sicherheitsdienst, and the People's Court presided over by Roland Freisler, which conducted show trials and death sentences. After failures like the 20 July plot, mass arrests implicated families and networks leading to executions at Plötzensee Prison and deportations to Sachsenhausen and Dachau concentration camps. Public trials targeted figures including Sophie Scholl, Hans Scholl, Christoph Probst of the White Rose, and Bonhoeffer—executed at Flossenbürg—while officers like Ludwig Beck and Erwin von Witzleben faced summary executions. Repression extended to civilian protests such as the Rosenstrasse protest where detainees were threatened, and to diplomatic purges within the Foreign Office that removed dissenters like Adam von Trott zu Solz.

Legacy and Historical Debate

Postwar memory centers on monuments at the Bendlerblock, the canonization of some resistors’ reputations, and historiography contrasting conservative plots with popular oppositional movements like the White Rose. Debates among scholars involve assessment by historians such as Hans Mommsen and Ian Kershaw over motives of aristocratic conspirators versus moral resistance exemplified by figures like Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Sophie Scholl. Public recognition involved trials in the Nuremberg Trials context, de-Nazification policies by the Allied Control Council, and commemorative practices by the Federal Republic of Germany and institutions like the German Historical Museum. The continuing discussion evaluates the scale and effectiveness of resistance, its links to exile networks in London and Stockholm, and the ethical legacy influencing modern debates in German law and civic education.

Category:History of Germany