Genetically modified organism

Genetically modified organism
Ciencias Españolas KoS · CC BY-SA 3.0 · source
Name	Genetically modified organism
Domain	Biotechnology
Introduced	1973
Author	Herbert Boyer and Stanley N. Cohen

Genetically modified organism is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using techniques of Molecular biology, Genetic engineering, or Recombinant DNA methods to introduce, remove, or modify specific traits. The term appears across discussions involving Agriculture, Pharmaceutical industry, Environmental science, and Bioethics, and is central to debates involving regulatory frameworks such as the United States Department of Agriculture and the European Food Safety Authority.

Definition and terminology

Definitions vary among organizations: the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization use criteria grounded in molecular modification, while the European Commission and the Codex Alimentarius Commission adopt policy-oriented formulations linked to Directive 2001/18/EC and similar instruments. Technical terminology includes transgenic organism, cisgenic organism, gene-edited organism, and knockout organism, each term used in literature from laboratories like the Max Planck Institute and institutions such as Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Legal definitions in jurisdictions such as the United States, Canada, Brazil, and India reflect differing emphasis on process versus product, with landmark cases in courts including the European Court of Justice shaping interpretations.

Methods of genetic modification

Early methods developed by researchers like Herbert Boyer and Stanley N. Cohen used plasmid cloning and restriction enzyme digestion in laboratories at institutes including Stanford University and University of California, San Francisco. Modern methods include Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation used in work at University of Cambridge, particle bombardment (biolistics) pioneered in facilities such as Iowa State University, and microinjection techniques employed in animal facilities like The Jackson Laboratory. Newer genome editing tools such as CRISPR-Cas9, developed by teams including Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna, and alternatives like TALENs and zinc finger nuclease systems are used in projects at Broad Institute, Salk Institute, and European Molecular Biology Laboratory. Supporting technologies include high-throughput sequencing implemented at centers such as Wellcome Sanger Institute and gene synthesis services offered by companies like GenScript and Twist Bioscience.

Applications

Applications span agriculture (e.g., crops engineered for Bt toxin expression, herbicide tolerance developed by corporations such as Monsanto/Bayer and adopted in countries like Argentina and China), medicine (recombinant insulin commercialized by firms including Eli Lilly and Novo Nordisk, gene therapies advanced at institutions like University College London and companies such as Spark Therapeutics), and industrial biotechnology (enzyme production used by Novozymes and DSM). In conservation contexts, proposals include gene drives researched at Imperial College London and Target Malaria, while aquaculture innovations involve salmon edited by companies like AquaBounty Technologies. Research in model organisms conducted at Harvard University, Yale University, and University of Oxford has produced insights into development, as exemplified by work on Drosophila melanogaster, Mus musculus, and Arabidopsis thaliana.

Regulation and safety

Regulatory regimes incorporate agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration, United States Department of Agriculture, and the European Food Safety Authority, with international guidelines from the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety under the Convention on Biological Diversity. Safety assessment frameworks address molecular characterization, allergenicity, and environmental risk, drawing on standards established by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and assessments by national bodies like Health Canada and the Australian Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. High-profile regulatory debates and rulings involving companies like Syngenta, Bayer, and research institutions such as Johns Hopkins University have influenced labeling policies in jurisdictions including Brazil and Japan.

Ethical, social, and economic issues

Ethical concerns have been raised by scholars associated with King's College London, Princeton University, and Stanford University about human germline editing following publications from groups including the International Summit on Human Gene Editing and controversies involving researchers at Harvard Medical School. Social debates intersect with movements like Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth and with advocacy by organizations such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation focused on development. Economic considerations involve patent litigation exemplified by disputes between University of California, Berkeley and the Broad Institute over CRISPR rights, market dynamics shaped by corporations like DowDuPont and Bayer, and impacts on smallholder farmers in regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia.

Environmental and ecological impacts

Ecological analyses conducted by researchers at University of Cambridge, Wageningen University, and University of California, Davis examine gene flow, non-target effects, and resistance evolution in pests and weeds, with case studies involving Bt corn and herbicide-resistant Glycine max (soybean). Conservation-related proposals including suppression of invasive species using gene drives have prompted assessments from bodies such as the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services and consultations with organizations like IUCN. Field trials regulated by national agencies in places like Australia, Canada, and New Zealand have generated empirical data informing risk assessments and management strategies.

Category:Biotechnology